DBMS Storage and Indexing 198 541 Disk Storage

DBMS Storage and Indexing 198: 541

Disk Storage

Disks and Files ¡ ¡ DBMS stores information on (“hard”) disks. This has major implications for DBMS design! l l l READ: transfer data from disk to main memory (RAM). WRITE: transfer data from RAM to disk. Both are high-cost operations, relative to inmemory operations, so must be planned carefully!

Why Not Store Everything in Main Memory? ¡ ¡ ¡ Costs too much. Main memory is volatile. We want data to be saved between runs. (Obviously!) Typical storage hierarchy: l l l Main memory (RAM) for currently used data. Disk for the main database (secondary storage). Tapes, DVD for archiving older versions of the data (tertiary storage).

Disks ¡ ¡ Secondary storage device of choice. Main advantage over tapes: random access vs. sequential. Data is stored and retrieved in units called disk blocks or pages. Unlike RAM, time to retrieve a disk page varies depending upon location on disk. l Therefore, relative placement of pages on disk has major impact on DBMS performance!

See textbook for in-depth discussion on disk storage ¡ Physical storage of files to avoid high I/O delays l Seek time and rotational delay dominate. ¡ ¡ ¡ l ¡ Seek time varies from about 1 to 20 msec Rotational delay varies from 0 to 10 msec Transfer rate is about 1 msec per 4 KB page Key to lower I/O cost: reduce seek/rotation delays! Hardware vs. software solutions? RAID organization l l Reliability Redundancy

Buffer Management in a DBMS Page Requests from Higher Levels BUFFER POOL disk page free frame MAIN MEMORY DISK ¡ ¡ DB choice of frame dictated by replacement policy Data must be in RAM for DBMS to operate on it! Table of <frame#, pageid> pairs is maintained.

Buffer Replacement Policy ¡ Frame is chosen for replacement by a replacement policy: l ¡ ¡ Policy can have big impact on # of I/O’s; depends on the access pattern. Sequential flooding: Nasty situation caused by LRU + repeated sequential scans. l ¡ Least-recently-used (LRU), Clock, MRU etc. # buffer frames < # pages in file means each page request causes an I/O. MRU much better in this situation (but not in all situations, of course). DBMS buffer policy has specific requirements

Record Organization

Record Formats: Fixed Length F 1 F 2 F 3 F 4 L 1 L 2 L 3 L 4 Base address (B) ¡ ¡ Address = B+L 1+L 2 Information about field types same for all records in a file; stored in system catalogs. Finding i’th field does not require scan of record.

Record Formats: Variable Length ¡ Two alternative formats (# fields is fixed): F 1 4 Field Count F 2 $ F 3 $ F 4 $ $ Fields Delimited by Special Symbols F 1 F 2 F 3 F 4 Array of Field Offsets * Second offers direct access to i’th field, efficient storage of nulls (special don’t know value); small directory overhead.

Page Formats: Fixed Length Records Slot 1 Slot 2 Free Space . . . Slot N Slot M N PACKED * 1. . . 0 1 1 M number of records M. . . 3 2 1 UNPACKED, BITMAP number of slots Record id = <page id, slot #>. In first alternative, moving records for free space management changes rid; may not be acceptable.

Page Formats: Variable Length Records Rid = (i, N) Page i Rid = (i, 2) Rid = (i, 1) 20 N . . . 16 2 SLOT DIRECTORY * 24 1 N # slots Pointer to start of free space Can move records on page without changing rid; so, attractive for fixed-length records too.

Files of Records ¡ ¡ Page or block is OK when doing I/O, but higher levels of DBMS operate on records, and files of records. FILE: A collection of pages, each containing a collection of records. Must support: l l l insert/delete/modify record read a particular record (specified using record id) scan all records (possibly with some conditions on the records to be retrieved)

File Organization

Alternative File Organizations Many alternatives exist, each ideal for some situations, and not so good in others: l l l Heap (random order) files: Suitable when typical access is a file scan retrieving all records. Sorted Files: Best if records must be retrieved in some order, or only a `range’ of records is needed. Indexes: Data structures to organize records via trees or hashing. ¡ ¡ Like sorted files, they speed up searches for a subset of records, based on values in certain (“search key”) fields Updates are much faster than in sorted files.

Unordered (Heap) Files ¡ ¡ ¡ Simplest file structure contains records in no particular order. As file grows and shrinks, disk pages are allocated and de-allocated. To support record level operations, we must: l l l ¡ keep track of the pages in a file keep track of free space on pages keep track of the records on a page There are many alternatives for keeping track of this.

Heap File Implemented as a List Data Page Full Pages Header Page Data Page ¡ ¡ Data Pages with Free Space The header page id and Heap file name must be stored someplace. Each page contains 2 `pointers’ plus data.

Heap File Using a Page Directory Data Page 1 Header Page Data Page 2 DIRECTORY ¡ ¡ Data Page N The entry for a page can include the number of free bytes on the page. The directory is a collection of pages; linked list implementation is just one alternative. l Much smaller than linked list of all HF pages!

Index Structures

Indexes ¡ An index on a file speeds up selections on the search key fields for the index. l l ¡ Any subset of the fields of a relation can be the search key for an index on the relation. Search key is not the same as key (minimal set of fields that uniquely identify a record in a relation). An index contains a collection of data entries, and supports efficient retrieval of all data entries k* with a given key value k. l Given data entry k*, we can find record with key k in at most one disk I/O. (Details soon …)

Alternatives for Data Entry k* in Index ¡ In a data entry k* we can store: l l l ¡ Data record with key value k, or <k, rid of data record with search key value k>, or <k, list of rids of data records with search key k> Choice of alternative for data entries is orthogonal to the indexing technique used to locate data entries with a given key value k. l l Examples of indexing techniques: B+ trees, hashbased structures Typically, index contains auxiliary information that directs searches to the desired data entries

Alternatives for Data Entries (Contd. ) ¡ Alternative 1: l l l If this is used, index structure is a file organization for data records (instead of a Heap file or sorted file). At most one index on a given collection of data records can use Alternative 1. (Otherwise, data records are duplicated, leading to redundant storage and potential inconsistency. ) If data records are very large, # of pages containing data entries is high. Implies size of auxiliary information in the index is also large, typically.

Alternatives for Data Entries (Contd. ) ¡ Alternatives 2 and 3: l l Data entries typically much smaller than data records. So, better than Alternative 1 with large data records, especially if search keys are small. (Portion of index structure used to direct search, which depends on size of data entries, is much smaller than with Alternative 1. ) Alternative 3 more compact than Alternative 2, but leads to variable sized data entries even if search keys are of fixed length.

B+ Tree Indexes Non-leaf Pages Leaf Pages (Sorted by search key) Leaf pages contain data entries, and are chained (prev & next) v Non-leaf pages have index entries; only used to direct searches: v index entry P 0 K 1 P 1 K 2 P 2 K m Pm

Example B+ Tree Note how data entries in leaf level are sorted Root 17 Entries < 17 5 2* 3* ¡ ¡ Entries > = 17 27 13 5* 7* 8* 14* 16* 22* 24* 30 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39* Find 28*? 29*? All > 15* and < 30* Insert/delete: Find data entry in leaf, then change it. Need to adjust parent sometimes. l And change sometimes bubbles up the tree

Hash-Based Indexes ¡ ¡ ¡ Good for equality selections. Index is a collection of buckets. l Bucket = primary page plus zero or more overflow pages. l Buckets contain data entries. Hashing function h: h(r) = bucket in which (data entry for) record r belongs. h looks at the search key fields of r. l No need for “index entries” in this scheme.

Index Classification ¡ Primary vs. secondary: If search key contains primary key, then called primary index. l ¡ Unique index: Search key contains a candidate key. Clustered vs. unclustered: If order of data records is the same as, or `close to’, order of data entries, then called clustered index. l l l Alternative 1 implies clustered; in practice, clustered also implies Alternative 1 (since sorted files are rare). A file can be clustered on at most one search key. Cost of retrieving data records through index varies greatly based on whether index is clustered or not!

Clustered vs. Unclustered Index ¡ Suppose that Alternative (2) is used for data entries, and that the data records are stored in a Heap file. l l To build clustered index, first sort the Heap file (with some free space on each page for future inserts). Overflow pages may be needed for inserts. (Thus, order of data recs is `close to’, but not identical to, the sort order. ) CLUSTERED Index entries direct search for data entries Data entries UNCLUSTERED Data entries (Index File) (Data file) Data Records

Comparing Storage Techniques

Cost Model for Our Analysis We ignore CPU costs, for simplicity: l l l B: The number of data pages R: Number of records per page D: (Average) time to read or write disk page Measuring number of page I/O’s ignores gains of prefetching a sequence of pages; thus, even I/O cost is only approximated. Average-case analysis; based on several simplistic assumptions. * Good enough to show the overall trends!

Comparing File Organizations ¡ ¡ ¡ Heap files (random order; insert at eof) Sorted files, sorted on <age, sal> Clustered B+ tree file, Alternative (1), search key <age, sal> Heap file with unclustered B + tree index on search key <age, sal> Heap file with unclustered hash index on search key <age, sal>

Operations to Compare ¡ ¡ ¡ Scan: Fetch all records from disk Equality search Range selection Insert a record Delete a record

Assumptions in Our Analysis ¡ Heap Files: l ¡ Sorted Files: l ¡ Equality selection on key; exactly one match. Files compacted after deletions. Indexes: l l Alt (2), (3): data entry size = 10% size of record Hash: No overflow buckets. ¡ l 80% page occupancy => File size = 1. 25 data size Tree: 67% occupancy (this is typical). ¡ Implies file size = 1. 5 data size

Assumptions (contd. ) ¡ Scans: l l ¡ Leaf levels of a tree-index are chained. Index data-entries plus actual file scanned for unclustered indexes. Range searches: l We use tree indexes to restrict the set of data records fetched, but ignore hash indexes.

Cost of Operations * Several assumptions underlie these (rough) estimates!

Cost of Operations * Several assumptions underlie these (rough) estimates!

Common Indexing Structures: B+ Tree

B+ Tree: Most Widely Used Index ¡ ¡ ¡ Insert/delete at log F N cost; keep tree heightbalanced. (F = fanout, N = # leaf pages) Minimum 50% occupancy (except for root). Each node contains d <= m <= 2 d entries. The parameter d is called the order of the tree. Supports equality and range-searches efficiently. Index Entries (Direct search) Data Entries ("Sequence set")

Example B+ Tree ¡ ¡ Search begins at root, and key comparisons direct it to a leaf. Search for 5*, 15*, all data entries >= 24*. . . Root 13 2* 3* 5* 7* 14* 16* 17 24 19* 20* 22* 30 24* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39* * Based on the search for 15*, we know it is not in the tree!

B+ Trees in Practice ¡ Typical order: 100 l l ¡ Typical capacities: l l ¡ capacity is 200 min 100 keys per node, except root) Typical fill-factor: 67%. average fanout = 133 Height 4: 1334 = 312, 900, 700 records Height 3: 1333 = 2, 352, 637 records Can often hold top levels in buffer pool: l Level 1 = Level 2 = l Level 3 = 17, 689 pages = 133 MBytes l 1 page = 133 pages = 8 Kbytes 1 Mbyte

Inserting a Data Entry into a B+ Tree ¡ ¡ Find correct leaf L. Put data entry onto L. l l If L has enough space, done! Else, must split L (into L and a new node L 2) ¡ ¡ ¡ This can happen recursively l ¡ Redistribute entries evenly, copy up middle key. Insert index entry pointing to L 2 into parent of L. To split index node, redistribute entries evenly, but push up middle key. (Contrast with leaf splits. ) Splits “grow” tree; root split increases height. l Tree growth: gets wider or one level taller at top.

Inserting 8* into Example B+ Tree Root 13 2* 3* 5* 7* 14* 16* 17 24 19* 20* 22* 30 24* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39*

Inserting 8* into Example B+ Tree ¡ ¡ Observe how minimum occupancy is guaranteed in both leaf and index pg splits. Note difference between copyup and push-up; be sure you understand the reasons for this. Entry to be inserted in parent node. (Note that 5 is s copied up and continues to appear in the leaf. ) 5 2* 3* 5* 17 5 13 24 7* 8* Entry to be inserted in parent node. (Note that 17 is pushed up and only appears once in the index. Contrast this with a leaf split. ) 30

Example B+ Tree After Inserting 8* Root 17 5 2* 3* 24 13 5* 7* 8* 14* 16* 19* 20* 22* 30 24* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39* v Notice that root was split, leading to increase in height. v In this example, we can avoid split by re-distributing entries; however, this is usually not done in practice.

Deleting a Data Entry from a B+ Tree ¡ ¡ Start at root, find leaf L where entry belongs. Remove the entry. l l ¡ ¡ If L is at least half-full, done! If L has only d-1 entries, ¡ Try to re-distribute, borrowing from sibling (adjacent node with same parent as L). ¡ If re-distribution fails, merge L and sibling. If merge occurred, must delete entry (pointing to L or sibling) from parent of L. Merge could propagate to root, decreasing height.

Example Tree After (Inserting 8*, Then) Deleting 19* and 20*. . . Root 17 5 2* 3* 24 13 5* 7* 8* 14* 16* 19* 20* 22* 30 24* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39*

Example Tree After (Inserting 8*, Then) Deleting 19* and 20*. . . Root 17 5 2* 3* ¡ ¡ 27 13 5* 7* 8* 14* 16* 22* 24* 30 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39* Deleting 19* is easy. Deleting 20* is done with re-distribution. Notice how middle key is copied up.

. . . And Then Deleting 24* ¡ ¡ Must merge. Observe `toss’ of index entry (on right), and `pull down’ of index entry (below). 30 22* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39* Root 5 2* 3* 5* 7* 8* 13 14* 16* 17 30 22* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39*

Prefix Key Compression ¡ ¡ Important to increase fan-out. (Why? ) Key values in index entries only `direct traffic’; can often compress them. l E. g. , If we have adjacent index entries with search key values Dannon Yogurt, David Smith and Devarakonda Murthy, we can abbreviate David Smith to Dav. (The other keys can be compressed too. . . ) ¡ ¡ In general, while compressing, must leave each index entry greater than every key value (in any subtree) to its left. Insert/delete must be suitably modified.

Bulk Loading of a B+ Tree ¡ ¡ ¡ If we have a large collection of records, and we want to create a B+ tree on some field, doing so by repeatedly inserting records is very slow. Bulk Loading can be done much more efficiently. Initialization: Sort all data entries, insert pointer to first (leaf) page in a new (root) page. Root 3* 4* Sorted pages of data entries; not yet in B+ tree 6* 9* 10* 11* 12* 13* 20* 22* 23* 31* 35* 36* 38* 41* 44*

Bulk Loading (Contd. ) Root ¡ ¡ Index entries for leaf pages always entered into rightmost index page just above leaf level. When this 3* fills up, it splits. (Split may go up right-most path to the root. ) Much faster than repeated inserts, especially when one considers locking! 10 6 4* 3* 4* 6* 9* 20 12 23 20 10 6* 9* not yet in B+ tree 10* 11* 12* 13* 20*22* 23* 31* 35* 36* 38*41* 44* Root 6 Data entry pages 35 12 Data entry pages not yet in B+ tree 35 23 38 10* 11* 12* 13* 20*22* 23* 31* 35* 36* 38*41* 44*

Summary of Bulk Loading ¡ Option 1: multiple inserts. l l ¡ Slow. Does not give sequential storage of leaves. Option 2: Bulk Loading l l Has advantages for concurrency control. Fewer I/Os during build. Leaves will be stored sequentially (and linked, of course). Can control “fill factor” on pages.

A Note on `Order’ ¡ Order (d) concept replaced by physical space criterion in practice (`at least half-full’). l l l Index pages can typically hold many more entries than leaf pages. Variable sized records and search keys mean different nodes will contain different numbers of entries. Even with fixed length fields, multiple records with the same search key value (duplicates) can lead to variable-sized data entries (if we use Alternative (3)).

Summary ¡ ¡ Tree-structured indexes are ideal for range-searches, also good for equality searches. B+ tree is a dynamic structure. l l l ¡ ¡ ¡ Inserts/deletes leave tree height-balanced; log F N cost. High fanout (F) means depth rarely more than 3 or 4. Almost always better than maintaining a sorted file. Typically, 67% occupancy on average. Usually preferable to ISAM, modulo locking considerations; adjusts to growth gracefully. If data entries are data records, splits can change rids! Key compression increases fanout, reduces height. Bulk loading can be much faster than repeated inserts for creating a B+ tree on a large data set. Most widely used index in database management systems because of its versatility. One of the most optimized components of a DBMS.

Common Indexing Structures: Hash Table

Introduction ¡ As for any index, 3 alternatives for data entries k*: l l ¡ ¡ Data record with key value k <k, rid of data record with search key value k> <k, list of rids of data records with search key k> Choice orthogonal to the indexing technique Hash-based indexes are best for equality selections. Cannot support range searches. Static and dynamic hashing techniques exist.

Static Hashing ¡ ¡ # primary pages fixed, allocated sequentially, never de-allocated; overflow pages if needed. h(k) mod M = bucket to which data entry with key k belongs. (M = # of buckets) h(key) mod N key 0 2 h N-1 Primary bucket pages Overflow pages

Static Hashing (Contd. ) ¡ ¡ Buckets contain data entries. Hash fn works on search key field of record r. Must distribute values over range 0. . . M-1. l l ¡ h(key) = (a * key + b) usually works well. a and b are constants; lots known about how to tune h. Long overflow chains can develop and degrade performance. l Extendible and Linear Hashing: Dynamic techniques to fix this problem.

Extendible Hashing ¡ Situation: Bucket (primary page) becomes full. Why not re-organize file by doubling # of buckets? l l Reading and writing all pages is expensive! Idea: Use directory of pointers to buckets, double # of buckets by doubling the directory, splitting just the bucket that overflowed! Directory much smaller than file, so doubling it is much cheaper. Only one page of data entries is split. No overflow page! Trick lies in how hash function is adjusted!

LOCAL DEPTH Example GLOBAL DEPTH 2 ¡ ¡ Directory is array of size 4. To find bucket for r, take last `global depth’ # bits of h(r); we denote r by h(r). l If h(r) = 5 = binary 101, it is in bucket pointed to by 01. 00 2 4* 12* 32* 16* Bucket A 2 1* 5* 21* 13* Bucket B 01 10 2 11 10* DIRECTORY Bucket C 2 15* 7* 19* Bucket D DATA PAGES v Insert: If bucket is full, split it (allocate new page, re-distribute). v If necessary, double the directory. (As we will see, splitting a bucket does not always require doubling; we can tell by comparing global depth with local depth for the split bucket. )

Insert h(r)=20 (Causes Doubling) LOCAL DEPTH 2 32*16* GLOBAL DEPTH 2 00 Bucket A 2 1* 5* 21*13* Bucket B 10 2 11 10* Bucket C 3 000 2 1* 5* 21* 13* Bucket B 010 2 011 10* Bucket C 100 Bucket D 101 2 110 15* 7* 19* Bucket D 111 2 4* 12* 20* 32* 16* Bucket A 001 2 15* 7* 19* 3 GLOBAL DEPTH 01 DIRECTORY LOCAL DEPTH Bucket A 2 (`split image' of Bucket A) 3 DIRECTORY 4* 12* 20* Bucket A 2 (`split image' of Bucket A)

Points to Note ¡ 20 = binary 10100. Last 2 bits (00) tell us r belongs in A or A 2. Last 3 bits needed to tell which. l l ¡ Global depth of directory: Max # of bits needed to tell which bucket an entry belongs to. Local depth of a bucket: # of bits used to determine if an entry belongs to this bucket. When does bucket split cause directory doubling? l Before insert, local depth of bucket = global depth. Insert causes local depth to become > global depth; directory is doubled by copying it over and `fixing’ pointer to split image page.

Comments on Extendible Hashing ¡ If directory fits in memory, equality search answered with one disk access; else two. l l l ¡ 100 MB file, 100 bytes/rec, 4 K pages contains 1, 000 records (as data entries) and 25, 000 directory elements; chances are high that directory will fit in memory. Directory grows in spurts, and, if the distribution of hash values is skewed, directory can grow large. Multiple entries with same hash value cause problems! Delete: If removal of data entry makes bucket empty, can be merged with `split image’. If each directory element points to same bucket as its split image, can halve directory.

Summary ¡ ¡ ¡ Hash-based indexes: best for equality searches, cannot support range searches. Static Hashing can lead to long overflow chains. Extendible Hashing avoids overflow pages by splitting a full bucket when a new data entry is to be added to it. (Duplicates may require overflow pages. ) l l ¡ Directory to keep track of buckets, doubles periodically. Can get large with skewed data; additional I/O if this does not fit in main memory. For hash-based indexes, a skewed data distribution is one in which the hash values of data entries are not uniformly distributed!

Choosing a File Organization

Understanding the Workload ¡ For each query in the workload: l l l ¡ Which relations does it access? Which attributes are retrieved? Which attributes are involved in selection/join conditions? How selective are these conditions likely to be? For each update in the workload: l l Which attributes are involved in selection/join conditions? How selective are these conditions likely to be? The type of update (INSERT/DELETE/UPDATE), and the attribu that are affected.

Choice of Indexes ¡ What indexes should we create? l ¡ Which relations should have indexes? What field(s) should be the search key? Should we build several indexes? For each index, what kind of an index should it be? l Clustered? Hash/tree?

Choice of Indexes (Contd. ) ¡ One approach: Consider the most important queries in turn. Consider the best plan using the current indexes, and see if a better plan is possible with an additional index. If so, create it. l l ¡ Obviously, this implies that we must understand how a DBMS evaluates queries and creates query evaluation plans! For now, we discuss simple 1 -table queries. Before creating an index, must also consider the impact on updates in the workload! l Trade-off: Indexes can make queries go faster, updates slower. Require disk space, too.

System Catalogs ¡ For each index: l ¡ For each relation: l l ¡ name, file structure (e. g. , Heap file) attribute name and type, for each attribute index name, for each index integrity constraints For each view: l ¡ structure (e. g. , B+ tree) and search key fields view name and definition Plus statistics, authorization, buffer pool size, etc. * Catalogs are themselves stored as relations!

Index Selection Guidelines ¡ Attributes in WHERE clause are candidates for index keys. l l Exact match condition suggests hash index. Range query suggests tree index. ¡ ¡ Multi-attribute search keys should be considered when a WHERE clause contains several conditions. l l Order of attributes is important for range queries. Such indexes can sometimes enable index-only strategies for important queries. ¡ ¡ Clustering is especially useful for range queries; can also help on equality queries if there are many duplicates. For index-only strategies, clustering is not important! Try to choose indexes that benefit as many queries as possible. Since only one index can be clustered per relation, choose it based on important queries that would benefit the most from clustering.

Examples of Clustered Indexes ¡ B+ tree index on E. age can be used to get qualifying tuples. l l ¡ Consider the GROUP BY query. l l ¡ How selective is the condition? Is the index clustered? SELECT E. dno FROM Emp E WHERE E. age>40 If many tuples have E. age > 10, using E. age index and sorting the retrieved tuples may be costly. Clustered E. dno index may be better! Equality queries and duplicates: l Clustering on E. hobby helps! SELECT E. dno, COUNT FROM Emp E WHERE E. age>10 GROUP BY E. dno (*) SELECT E. dno FROM Emp E WHERE E. hobby=Stamps

Indexes with Composite Search Keys ¡ Composite Search Keys: Search on a combination of fields. l Equality query: Every field value is equal to a constant value. E. g. wrt <sal, age> index: ¡ l Range query: Some field value is not a constant. E. g. : ¡ ¡ age=20 and sal =75 age =20; or age=20 and sal > 10 Data entries in index sorted by search key to support range queries. l l Lexicographic order, or Spatial order. Examples of composite key indexes using lexicographic order. 11, 80 11 12, 10 12 12, 20 13, 75 <age, sal> 10, 12 20, 12 75, 13 name age sal bob 12 10 cal 11 80 joe 12 20 sue 13 75 12 13 <age> 10 Data records sorted by name 80, 11 <sal, age> Data entries in index sorted by <sal, age> 20 75 80 <sal> Data entries sorted by <sal>

Composite Search Keys ¡ To retrieve Emp records with age=30 AND sal=4000, an index on <age, sal> would be better than an index on age or an index on sal. l ¡ If condition is: 20<age<30 AND 3000<sal<5000: l ¡ Clustered tree index on <age, sal> or <sal, age> is best. If condition is: age=30 AND 3000<sal<5000: l ¡ Choice of index key orthogonal to clustering etc. Clustered <age, sal> index much better than <sal, age> index! Composite indexes are larger, updated more often.

Index-Only Plans ¡ SELECT E. dno, COUNT(*) A number of queries can <E. dno> FROM Emp E be GROUP BY E. dno answered without retrieving <E. dno, E. sal> SELECT E. dno, MIN(E. sal) any tuples FROM Emp E Tree index! from one or GROUP BY E. dno more of the relations <E. age, E. sal> SELECT AVG(E. sal) involved if a or FROM Emp E suitable <E. sal, E. age> WHERE E. age=25 AND index is E. sal BETWEEN 3000 AND 5000 Tree index! available.

Index-Only Plans (Contd. ) ¡ Index-only plans are possible if the key is <dno, age> or we have a tree index with key <age, dno> l l Which is better? What if we consider the second query? SELECT E. dno, COUNT FROM Emp E WHERE E. age=30 GROUP BY E. dno (*) SELECT E. dno, COUNT FROM Emp E WHERE E. age>30 GROUP BY E. dno (*)

Index-Only Plans (Contd. ) <E. dno> ¡ Index-only plans can also be found for queries involving more than one table; more on this later. SELECT D. mgr FROM Dept D, Emp E WHERE D. dno=E. dno <E. dno, E. eid> SELECT D. mgr, E. eid FROM Dept D, Emp E WHERE D. dno=E. dno

Summary ¡ ¡ Many alternative file organizations exist, each appropriate in some situation. If selection queries are frequent, sorting the file or building an index is important. l l ¡ Hash-based indexes only good for equality search. Sorted files and tree-based indexes best for range search; also good for equality search. (Files rarely kept sorted in practice; B+ tree index is better. ) Index is a collection of data entries plus a way to quickly find entries with given key values.

Summary (Contd. ) ¡ Data entries can be actual data records, <key, rid> pairs, or <key, rid-list> pairs. l ¡ ¡ Choice orthogonal to indexing technique used to locate data entries with a given key value. Can have several indexes on a given file of data records, each with a different search key. Indexes can be classified as clustered vs. unclustered, primary vs. secondary, and dense vs. sparse. Differences have important consequences for utility/performance.

Summary (Contd. ) ¡ Understanding the nature of the workload for the application, and the performance goals, is essential to developing a good design. l ¡ What are the important queries and updates? What attributes/relations are involved? Indexes must be chosen to speed up important queries (and perhaps some updates!). l l l Index maintenance overhead on updates to key fields. Choose indexes that can help many queries, if possible. Build indexes to support index-only strategies. Clustering is an important decision; only one index on a given relation can be clustered! Order of fields in composite index key can be important.