Data Mining Classification Basic Concepts Decision Trees and

Data Mining Classification: Basic Concepts, Decision Trees, and Model Evaluation Lecture Notes for Chapter 4 Introduction to Data Mining by Tan, Steinbach, Kumar

Classification: Definition o Given a collection of records (training set ) – Each record contains a set of attributes, one of the attributes is the class. o o Find a model for the class attribute as a function of the values of other attributes. Goal: previously unseen records should be assigned a class as accurately as possible. – A test set is used to determine the accuracy of the model. Usually, the given data set is divided into training and test sets, with training set used to build the model and test set used to validate it.

Illustrating Classification Task

Examples of Classification Task o Predicting tumor cells as benign or malignant o Classifying credit card transactions as legitimate or fraudulent o Classifying secondary structures of protein as alpha-helix, beta-sheet, or random coil o Categorizing news stories as finance, weather, entertainment, sports, etc

Classification Techniques o Decision Tree based Methods covered in Part 1 o Rule-based Methods Memory based reasoning, instance-based learning covered in Part 2 o o o Neural Networks Naïve Bayes and Bayesian Belief Networks Support Vector Machines covered in Part 2 Ensemble Methods covered in Part 2

Example of a Decision Tree al ric c at o eg c at al o eg ric in nt co u s u o ss a cl Splitting Attributes Refund Yes No NO Mar. St Single, Divorced Tax. Inc < 80 K NO Training Data Married NO > 80 K YES Model: Decision Tree

Another Example of Decision Tree l ca g te l a ric o o ca g te s a ric u uo co in t n ss a cl Married Mar. St NO Single, Divorced Refund No Yes NO Tax. Inc < 80 K NO > 80 K YES There could be more than one tree that fits the same data!

Decision Tree Classification Task Decision Tree

Apply Model to Test Data Start from the root of tree. Refund Yes No NO Mar. St Single, Divorced Tax. Inc < 80 K NO Married NO > 80 K YES

Apply Model to Test Data Refund Yes No NO Mar. St Single, Divorced Tax. Inc < 80 K NO Married NO > 80 K YES

Apply Model to Test Data Refund Yes No NO Mar. St Single, Divorced Tax. Inc < 80 K NO Married NO > 80 K YES Assign Cheat to “No”

Decision Tree Classification Task Decision Tree

Decision Tree Induction o Many Algorithms: – Hunt’s Algorithm (one of the earliest) – CART – ID 3, C 4. 5 – SLIQ, SPRINT

General Structure of Hunt’s Algorithm o o Let Dt be the set of training records that reach a node t General Procedure: – If Dt contains records that belong the same class yt, then t is a leaf node labeled as yt – If Dt is an empty set, then t is a leaf node labeled by the default class, yd – If Dt contains records that belong to more than one class, use an attribute test to split the data into smaller subsets. Recursively apply the procedure to each subset. Dt ?

Hunt’s Algorithm Don’t Cheat Refund Yes No Don’t Cheat Single, Divorced Cheat Don’t Cheat Marital Status Married Single, Divorced No Marital Status Married Don’t Cheat Taxable Income Don’t Cheat < 80 K >= 80 K Don’t Cheat

Tree Induction Greedy strategy ( – Split the records based on an attribute test that optimizes certain criterion. Remark: Finding optimal decision trees is NP-hard. http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/NP-hard o Issues 1. Determine how to split the records o u u How to specify the attribute test condition? How to determine the best split? 2. Determine when to stop splitting

Tree Induction o o Greedy strategy (http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Greedy_algorithm ) Creates the tree top down starting from the root, and splits the records based on an attribute test that optimizes certain criterion. Issues – Determine how to split the records How to specify the attribute test condition? u How to determine the best split? u – Determine when to stop splitting

Side Discussion “Greedy Algorithms” Fast and therefore attractive to solve NP-hard and other problems with high complexity. Later decisions are made in the context of decision selected early dramatically reducing the size of the search space. o They do not backtrack: if they make a bad decision (based on local criteria), they never revise the decision. o They are not guaranteed to find the optimal solutions, and sometimes can get deceived and find really bad solutions. o In spite of what is said above, a lot successful and popular algorithms in Computer Science are greedy algorithms. o Greedy algorithms are particularly popular in AI and Operations Research. Popular Greedy Algorithms: Decision Tree Induction, … o

How to Specify Test Condition? o Depends on attribute types – Nominal – Ordinal – Continuous o Depends on number of ways to split – 2 -way split – Multi-way split

Splitting Based on Nominal Attributes o Multi-way split: Use as many partitions as distinct values. Car. Type Family Luxury Sports o Binary split: Divides values into two subsets. Need to find optimal partitioning. {Sports, Luxury} Car. Type {Family} OR {Family, Luxury} Car. Type {Sports}

Splitting Based on Ordinal Attributes o Multi-way split: Use as many partitions as distinct values. Size Small Medium o Binary split: Divides values into two subsets. Need to find optimal partitioning. {Small, Medium} o Large Size {Large} What about this split? OR {Small, Large} {Medium, Large} Size {Medium} {Small}

Splitting Based on Continuous Attributes o Different ways of handling – Discretization to form an ordinal categorical attribute Static – discretize once at the beginning u Dynamic – ranges can be found by equal interval bucketing, equal frequency bucketing (percentiles), clustering, or supervised clustering. u – Binary Decision: (A < v) or (A v) consider all possible splits and finds the best cut v u can be more compute intensive u

Splitting Based on Continuous Attributes

Tree Induction o Greedy strategy. – Split the records based on an attribute test that optimizes certain criterion. o Issues – Determine how to split the records How to specify the attribute test condition? u How to determine the best split? u – Determine when to stop splitting

How to determine the Best Split? Before Splitting: 10 records of class 0, 10 records of class 1 Before: E(1/2, 1/2) After: 4/20*E(1/4, 3/4) + 8/20*E(1, 0) + 8/20*(1/8, 7/8) Gain: Before-After Pick Test that has the highest gain! Remark: E stands for Gini, H, Impurity, …

How to determine the Best Split o o Greedy approach: – Nodes with homogeneous class distribution (pure nodes) are preferred Need a measure of node impurity: Non-homogeneous, High degree of impurity Low degree of impurity

Measures of Node Impurity o Gini Index o Entropy o Misclassification error Remark: All three approaches center on selecting tests that maximize purity. They just disagree in how exactly purity is measured.

How to Find the Best Split Before Splitting: M 0 A? Yes B? No Yes No Node N 1 Node N 2 Node N 3 Node N 4 M 1 M 2 M 3 M 4 M 12 M 34 Gain = M 0 – M 12 vs M 0 – M 34

Measure of Impurity: GINI o Gini Index for a given node t : (NOTE: p( j | t) is the relative frequency of class j at node t). – Maximum (1 - 1/nc) when records are equally distributed among all classes, implying least interesting information – Minimum (0. 0) when all records belong to one class, implying most interesting information

Examples for computing GINI P(C 1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C 2) = 6/6 = 1 Gini = 1 – P(C 1)2 – P(C 2)2 = 1 – 0 – 1 = 0 P(C 1) = 1/6 P(C 2) = 5/6 Gini = 1 – (1/6)2 – (5/6)2 = 0. 278 P(C 1) = 2/6 P(C 2) = 4/6 Gini = 1 – (2/6)2 – (4/6)2 = 0. 444

Splitting Based on GINI o o Used in CART, SLIQ, SPRINT. When a node p is split into k partitions (children), the quality of split is computed as, where, ni = number of records at child i, n = number of records at node p.

Binary Attributes: Computing GINI Index o o Splits into two partitions Effect of Weighing partitions: – Larger and Purer Partitions are sought for. B? Yes Gini(N 1) = 1 – (5/7)2 – (2/7)2 =… Gini(N 2) = 1 – (1/5)2 – (4/5)2 =… Node N 1 No Node N 2 Gini(Children) = 7/12 * Gini(N 1) + 5/12 * Gini(N 2)=y

Categorical Attributes: Computing Gini Index o o For each distinct value, gather counts for each class in the dataset Use the count matrix to make decisions Multi-way split Two-way split (find best partition of values)

Continuous Attributes: Computing Gini Index o o Use Binary Decisions based on one value Several Choices for the splitting value – Number of possible splitting values = Number of distinct values Each splitting value has a count matrix associated with it – Class counts in each of the partitions, A < v and A v Simple method to choose best v – For each v, scan the database to gather count matrix and compute its Gini index – Computationally Inefficient! Repetition of work.

Continuous Attributes: Computing Gini Index. . . o For efficient computation: for each attribute, – Sort the attribute on values – Linearly scan these values, each time updating the count matrix and computing gini index – Choose the split position that has the least gini index Sorted Values Split Positions

Alternative Splitting Criteria based on INFO o Entropy at a given node t: (NOTE: p( j | t) is the relative frequency of class j at node t). – Measures homogeneity of a node. u Maximum (log nc) when records are equally distributed among all classes implying least information u Minimum (0. 0) when all records belong to one class, implying most information – Entropy based computations are similar to the GINI index computations

Examples for computing Entropy P(C 1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C 2) = 6/6 = 1 Entropy = – 0 log 0 – 1 log 1 = – 0 = 0 P(C 1) = 1/6 P(C 2) = 5/6 Entropy = – (1/6) log 2 (1/6) – (5/6) log 2 (1/6) = 0. 65 P(C 1) = 2/6 P(C 2) = 4/6 Entropy = – (2/6) log 2 (2/6) – (4/6) log 2 (4/6) = 0. 92

Splitting Based on INFO. . . o Information Gain: Parent Node, p is split into k partitions; ni is number of records in partition i – Measures Reduction in Entropy achieved because of the split. Choose the split that achieves most reduction (maximizes GAIN) – Used in ID 3 and C 4. 5 – Disadvantage: Tends to prefer splits that result in large number of partitions, each being small but pure.

Splitting Based on INFO. . . o Gain Ratio: Parent Node, p is split into k partitions ni is the number of records in partition i – Adjusts Information Gain by the entropy of the partitioning (Split. INFO). Higher entropy partitioning (large number of small partitions) is penalized! – Used in C 4. 5 – Designed to overcome the disadvantage of Information Gain

Entropy and Gain Computations Assume we have m classes in our classification problem. A test S subdivides the examples D= (p 1, …, pm) into n subsets D 1 =(p 11, …, p 1 m) , …, Dn =(p 11, …, p 1 m). The qualify of S is evaluated using Gain(D, S) (ID 3) or Gain. Ratio(D, S) (C 5. 0): m Let H(D=(p 1, …, pm))= n i=1 (pi log 2(1/pi)) (called the entropy function) Gain(D, S)= H(D) - i=1 (|Di|/|D|)*H(Di) Gain_Ratio(D, S)= Gain(D, S) / H(|D 1|/|D|, …, |Dn|/|D|) Remarks: |D| denotes the number of elements in set D. D=(p 1, …, pm) implies that p 1+…+ pm =1 and indicates that of the |D| examples p 1*|D| examples belong to the first class, p 2*|D| examples belong to the second class, …, and pm*|D| belong the m-th (last) class. H(0, 1)=H(1, 0)=0; H(1/2, 1/2)=1, H(1/4, 1/4)=2, H(1/p, …, 1/p)=log 2(p). C 5. 0 selects the test S with the highest value for Gain_Ratio(D, S), whereas ID 3 picks the test S for the examples in set D with the highest value for Gain (D, S).

Information Gain vs. Gain Ratio Result: I_Gain_Ratio: city>age>car Result: I_Gain: age > car=city Gain(D, city=)= H(1/3, 2/3) – ½ H(1, 0) – D=(2/3, 1/3) ½ H(1/3, 2/3)=0. 45 city=la city=sf D 1(1, 0) D 2(1/3, 2/3) G_Ratio_pen(city=)=H(1/2, 1/2)=1 G_Ratio_pen(car=)=H(1/2, 1/3, 1/6)=1. 45 car=merc D 1(0, 1) D=(2/3, 1/3) car=taurus D 2(2/3, 1/3) Gain(D, car=)= H(1/3, 2/3) – 1/6 H(0, 1) – car=van ½ H(2/3, 1/3) – 1/3 H(1, 0)=0. 45 D 3(1, 0) Gain(D, age=)= H(1/3, 2/3) – 6*1/6 H(0, 1) = 0. 90 age=22 age=25 age=27 age=35 age=40 age=50 D 1(1, 0) D 4(1, 0) D 5(1, 0) D 2(0, 1) D 3(1, 0) D 6(0, 1) G_Ratio_pen(age=)=log 2(6)=2. 58 D=(2/3, 1/3)

Splitting Criteria based on Classification Error o Classification error at a node t : o Measures misclassification error made by a node. u Maximum (1 - 1/nc) when records are equally distributed among all classes, implying least interesting information u Minimum (0. 0) when all records belong to one class, implying most interesting information

Examples for Computing Error P(C 1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C 2) = 6/6 = 1 Error = 1 – max (0, 1) = 1 – 1 = 0 P(C 1) = 1/6 P(C 2) = 5/6 Error = 1 – max (1/6, 5/6) = 1 – 5/6 = 1/6 P(C 1) = 2/6 P(C 2) = 4/6 Error = 1 – max (2/6, 4/6) = 1 – 4/6 = 1/3

Comparison among Splitting Criteria For a 2 -class problem:

Tree Induction o Greedy strategy. – Split the records based on an attribute test that optimizes certain criterion. o Issues – Determine how to split the records How to specify the attribute test condition? u How to determine the best split? u – Determine when to stop splitting

Stopping Criteria for Tree Induction o Stop expanding a node when all the records belong to the same class o Stop expanding a node when all the records have similar attribute values o Early termination (to be discussed later)

Example: C 4. 5 o o o Simple depth-first construction. Uses Information Gain Sorts Continuous Attributes at each node. Needs entire data to fit in memory. Unsuitable for Large Datasets. – Needs out-of-core sorting. You can download the software from: http: //www. cse. unsw. edu. au/~quinlan/c 4. 5 r 8. tar. gz

Practical Issues of Classification o Underfitting and Overfitting o Missing Values o Costs of Classification

Underfitting and Overfitting (Example) 500 circular and 500 triangular data points. Circular points: 0. 5 sqrt(x 12+x 22) 1 Triangular points: sqrt(x 12+x 22) > 0. 5 or sqrt(x 12+x 22) < 1

Underfitting and Overfitting Underfitting Overfitting Complexity of a Decision Tree : = number of nodes It uses Complexity of the classification function Underfitting: when model is too simple, both training and test errors are large Overfitting: when model is too complex and test errors are large although training errors are small.

Overfitting due to Noise Decision boundary is distorted by noise point

Overfitting due to Insufficient Examples Lack of data points in the lower half of the diagram makes it difficult to predict correctly the class labels of that region - Insufficient number of training records in the region causes the decision tree to predict the test examples using other training records that are irrelevant to the classification task

Notes on Overfitting o o Overfitting results in decision trees that are more complex than necessary: after learning knowledge they “tend to learn noise” More complex models tend to have more complicated decision boundaries and tend to be more sensitive to noise, missing examples, … Training error no longer provides a good estimate of how well the tree will perform on previously unseen records Need “new” ways for estimating errors

Estimating Generalization Errors o o o Re-substitution errors: error on training ( e(t) ) Generalization errors: error on testing ( e’(t)) Methods for estimating generalization errors: – Optimistic approach: e’(t) = e(t) – Pessimistic approach: u u u For each leaf node: e’(t) = (e(t)+0. 5) Total errors: e’(T) = e(T) + N 0. 5 (N: number of leaf nodes) For a tree with 30 leaf nodes and 10 errors on training (out of 1000 instances): Training error = 10/1000 = 1% Generalization error = (10 + 30 0. 5)/1000 = 2. 5% – Use validation set to compute generalization error u used Reduced error pruning (REP): Regularization approach: Minimize Error + Model Complexity

Occam’s Razor Given two models of similar generalization errors, one should prefer the simpler model over the more complex model o For complex models, there is a greater chance that it was fitted accidentally by errors in data o Usually, simple models are more robust with respect to noise Therefore, one should include model complexity when evaluating a model o

Minimum Description Length (MDL) o o o Skip today, Read book Cost(Model, Data) = Cost(Data|Model) + Cost(Model) – Cost is the number of bits needed for encoding. – Search for the least costly model. Cost(Data|Model) encodes the misclassification errors. Cost(Model) uses node encoding (number of children) plus splitting condition encoding.

How to Address Overfitting o Pre-Pruning (Early Stopping Rule) – Stop the algorithm before it becomes a fully-grown tree – Typical stopping conditions for a node: u Stop if all instances belong to the same class u Stop if all the attribute values are the same – More restrictive conditions: Stop if number of instances is less than some user-specified threshold u Stop if class distribution of instances are independent of the available features (e. g. , using 2 test) u u Stop if expanding the current node does not improve impurity measures (e. g. , Gini or information gain).

How to Address Overfitting… o Post-pruning – Grow decision tree to its entirety – Trim the nodes of the decision tree in a bottom -up fashion – If generalization error improves after trimming, replace sub-tree by a leaf node. – Class label of leaf node is determined from majority class of instances in the sub-tree

Example of Post-Pruning Training Error (Before splitting) = 10/30 Class = Yes 20 Pessimistic error = (10 + 0. 5)/30 = 10. 5/30 Class = No 10 Training Error (After splitting) = 9/30 Pessimistic error (After splitting) Error = 10/30 = (9 + 4 0. 5)/30 = 11/30 PRUNE! Class = Yes 8 Class = Yes 3 Class = Yes 4 Class = Yes 5 Class = No 4 Class = No 1

Handling Missing Attribute Values o Missing values affect decision tree construction in three different ways: – Affects how impurity measures are computed – Affects how to distribute instance with missing value to child nodes – Affects how a test instance with missing value is classified

How to cope with missing values Before Splitting: Entropy(Parent) = -0. 3 log(0. 3)-(0. 7)log(0. 7) = 0. 8813 Split on Refund: Entropy(Refund=Yes) = 0 Entropy(Refund=No) = -(2/6)log(2/6) – (4/6)log(4/6) = 0. 9183 Missing value Entropy(Children) = 0. 3 (0) + 0. 6 (0. 9183) = 0. 551 Gain = 0. 9 (0. 8813 – 0. 551) = 0. 3303 Idea: ignore examples with null values for the test attribute; compute M(…) only using examples for Which Refund is defined.

Distribute Instances Refund Yes No Probability that Refund=Yes is 3/9 Refund Yes No Probability that Refund=No is 6/9 Assign record to the left child with weight = 3/9 and to the right child with weight = 6/9

Classify Instances New record: Married Refund Yes NO Single Divorced Total Class=No 3 1 0 4 Class=Yes 6/9 1 1 2. 67 Total 3. 67 2 1 6. 67 No Single, Divorced Mar. St Married Tax. Inc < 80 K NO NO > 80 K YES Probability that Marital Status = Married is 3. 67/6. 67 Probability that Marital Status ={Single, Divorced} is 3/6. 67

Other Issues o o Data Fragmentation Search Strategy Expressiveness Tree Replication

Data Fragmentation o Number of instances gets smaller as you traverse down the tree o Number of instances at the leaf nodes could be too small to make any statistically significant decision increases the danger of overfitting

Search Strategy o Finding an optimal decision tree is NP-hard o The algorithm presented so far uses a greedy, top -down, recursive partitioning strategy to induce a reasonable solution o Other strategies? – Bottom-up – Bi-directional

Expressiveness o Decision tree provides expressive representation for learning discrete-valued function – But they do not generalize well to certain types of Boolean functions u Example: parity function: – Class = 1 if there is an even number of Boolean attributes with truth value = True – Class = 0 if there is an odd number of Boolean attributes with truth value = True u o For accurate modeling, must have a complete tree Not expressive enough for modeling continuous variables – Particularly when test condition involves only a single attribute at-a-time

Decision Boundary • Border line between two neighboring regions of different classes is known as decision boundary • Decision boundary is parallel to axes because test condition involves a single attribute at-a-time

Oblique Decision Trees x+y<1 Class = + • Test condition may involve multiple attributes • More expressive representation • Finding optimal test condition is computationally expensive Class =

Advantages Decision Tree Based Classification o Inexpensive to construct o Extremely fast at classifying unknown records o Easy to interpret for small-sized trees; strategy understandable to domain expert o Okay for noisy data o Can handle both continuous and symbolic attributes o Accuracy is comparable to other classification techniques for many simple data sets o Decent average performance over many datasets o Can handle multi-modal class distributions o Kind of a standard—if you want to show that your “new” classification technique really “improves the world” compare its performance against decision trees (e. g. C 5. 0) using 10 -fold cross-validation o Does not need distance functions; only the order of attribute values is important for classification: 0. 1, 0. 2, 0. 3 and 0. 331, 0. 332, and 0. 333 is the same for a decision tree learner.

Disadvantages Decision Tree Based Classification o o o Relies on rectangular approximation that might not be good for some dataset Selecting good learning algorithm parameters (e. g. degree of pruning) is non-trivial; however, some of the competing methods have worth parameter selection problems Ensemble techniques, support vector machines, and sometimes k. NN, and neural networks might obtain higher accuracies for a specific dataset.

Model Evaluation o Metrics for Performance Evaluation – How to evaluate the performance of a model? o Methods for Performance Evaluation – How to obtain reliable estimates? o Methods for Model Comparison – How to compare the relative performance among competing models?

Metrics for Performance Evaluation o o Focus on the predictive capability of a model – Rather than how fast it takes to classify or build models, scalability, etc. Confusion Matrix: Important: If there are problems with obtaining a “good” classifier inspect the confusion matrix! PREDICTED CLASS Class=Yes ACTUAL CLASS Class=No a c Class=No b d a: TP (true positive) b: FN (false negative) c: FP (false positive) d: TN (true negative)

Metrics for Performance Evaluation… PREDICTED CLASS Class=Yes ACTUAL CLASS o Class=No Class=Yes a (TP) b (FN) Class=No c (FP) d (TN) Most widely-used metric:

Limitation of Accuracy o Consider a 2 -class problem – Number of Class 0 examples = 9990 – Number of Class 1 examples = 10 o If model predicts everything to be class 0, accuracy is 9990/10000 = 99. 9 % – Accuracy is misleading because model does not detect any class 1 example

Computing Cost of Classification Cost Matrix PREDICTED CLASS ACTUAL CLASS Model M 1 ACTUAL CLASS PREDICTED CLASS + - + 150 40 - 60 250 Accuracy = 80% Cost = 3910 C(i|j) + -1 100 - 1 0 Model M 2 ACTUAL CLASS PREDICTED CLASS + - + 250 45 - 5 200 Accuracy = 90% Cost = 4255

Cost vs Accuracy Count PREDICTED CLASS Class=Yes ACTUAL CLASS Class=No a b c d Accuracy is proportional to cost if 1. C(Yes|No)=C(No|Yes) = q 2. C(Yes|Yes)=C(No|No) = p N=a+b+c+d Accuracy = (a + d)/N Cost PREDICTED CLASS Class=Yes ACTUAL CLASS Class=No p q Class=No q p Cost = p (a + d) + q (b + c) = p (a + d) + q (N – a – d) = q N – (q – p)(a + d) = N [q – (q-p) (a+d)/N] = N [q – (q-p) Accuracy]

Model Evaluation o Metrics for Performance Evaluation – How to evaluate the performance of a model? o Methods for Performance Evaluation – How to obtain reliable estimates? o Methods for Model Comparison – How to compare the relative performance among competing models?

Methods for Performance Evaluation o How to obtain a reliable estimate of the accuracy of a classifier? o Performance of a model may depend on other factors besides the learning algorithm: – Class distribution – Cost of misclassification – Size of training and test sets

Learning Curve l Learning curve shows how accuracy changes with varying sample size l Requires a sampling schedule for creating learning curve: l Arithmetic sampling (Langley, et al) l Geometric sampling (Provost et al) Effect of small sample size: - Bias in the estimate - Variance of estimate

Methods for Estimating Accuracy o o o Holdout – Reserve 2/3 for training and 1/3 for testing Random subsampling – Repeated holdout Cross validation Most popular! – Partition data into k disjoint subsets – k-fold: train on k-1 partitions, test on the remaining one – Leave-one-out: k=n Class stratified k-fold cross validation Stratified sampling – oversampling vs undersampling

Model Evaluation To be discussed in Part 2! o Metrics for Performance Evaluation – How to evaluate the performance of a model? o Methods for Performance Evaluation – How to obtain reliable estimates? o Methods for Model Comparison – How to compare the relative performance among competing models?

Test of Significance o Given two models: – Model M 1: accuracy = 85%, tested on 30 instances – Model M 2: accuracy = 75%, tested on 5000 instances – Test we run independently (“unpaired”) o Can we say M 1 is better than M 2? – How much confidence can we place on accuracy of M 1 and M 2? – Can the difference in performance measure be explained as a result of random fluctuations in the test set?

Confidence Interval for Accuracy o Prediction can be regarded as a Bernoulli trial – A Bernoulli trial has 2 possible outcomes – Possible outcomes for prediction: correct or wrong – Collection of Bernoulli trials has a Binomial distribution: u x Bin(N, p) x: number of correct predictions u e. g: Toss a fair coin 50 times, how many heads would turn up? Expected number of heads = N p = 50 0. 5 = 25 o Given x (# of correct predictions) or equivalently, acc=x/N, and N (# of test instances), Can we predict p (true accuracy of model)?

Confidence Interval for Accuracy o Area = 1 - For large test sets (N > 30), – acc has a normal distribution with mean p and variance p(1 -p)/N Z /2 o Confidence Interval for p: Z 1 - /2

Unpaired Testing: Comparing 2 Models Accuracy Classifer 1 acc 1 Do the Blue Areas Overlap? ? Z /2 Z 1 - /2 If the blue areas do not overlap: one classifier is significantly better than the other one 1 - is degree of confidence. acc 2 Accuracy Classifer 2

Confidence Interval for Accuracy o Consider a model that produces an accuracy of 80% when evaluated on 100 test instances: – N=100, acc = 0. 8 – Let 1 - = 0. 95 (95% confidence) – From probability table, Z /2=1. 96 1 - Z 0. 99 2. 58 0. 98 2. 33 N 50 100 500 1000 5000 0. 95 1. 96 p(lower) 0. 670 0. 711 0. 763 0. 774 0. 789 0. 90 1. 65 p(upper) 0. 888 0. 866 0. 833 0. 824 0. 811

Comparing Performance of 2 Models o Given two models, say M 1 and M 2, which is better? – – M 1 is tested on D 1 (size=n 1), found error rate = e 1 M 2 is tested on D 2 (size=n 2), found error rate = e 2 Assume D 1 and D 2 are independent (‘unpaired’) If n 1 and n 2 are sufficiently large, then – Approximate:

Comparing Performance of 2 Models o To test if performance difference is statistically significant: d = e 1 – e 2 – d ~ N(dt, t) where dt is the true difference – Since D 1 and D 2 are independent, their variance adds up: standard normal distribution – At (1 - ) confidence level,

An Illustrative Example o Given: M 1: n 1 = 30, e 1 = 0. 15 M 2: n 2 = 5000, e 2 = 0. 25 d = |e 2 – e 1| = 0. 1 (2 -sided unpaired test) o At 95% confidence level, Z /2=1. 96 o => Interval contains 0 => difference is not statistically significant

Paired t-Test o The two-sample t-test is used to determine if two population means are equal. The data may either be paired or not paired. For paired t test, the data is dependent, i. e. there is a oneto-one correspondence between the values in the two samples. For example, same subject measured before & after a process change, or same subject measured at different times. For unpaired t test, the sample sizes for the two samples may or may not be equal.

Comparing 2 Algorithms Using the Same Data 1. 2. http: //www. itl. nist. gov/div 898/handbook/eda/section 3/eda 3672. htm (ttable) If models are generated on the same test sets D 1, D 2, …, Dk (e. g. , via cross-validation; k-1 “degrees of freedom”; paired t-test) 1. For each set: compute dj = e 1 j – e 2 j 2. dj has mean d and “variance” tt 3. Estimate: Student’s t-distribution 3. If the confidence interval does not contain 0 you can reject the hypothesis that ‘the difference in accuracy/error rate is 0” with confidence , and therefore infer that one of the two methods is significantly better than the other method; if it includes 0, we cannot infer that one method is significantly better.

Paired Tests --- Is One Classifier Better? ? Accuracy Differences Between the Two Classifiers Acc-dif Z /2 Z 1 - /2 Key Question: Does the blue area include 0? • Yes: both classifiers are not significantly different • No: One classifier is significantly more accurate

Example 1: Comparing Models on the same Data o 2 models M 1 and M 2 are compared with 4 -fold cross validation; M 1 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 84, 0. 82, 0. 80, 0. 82 and M 2 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 80, 0. 79, 0. 75, 0. 82. The average difference is 0. 03 and the required confidence level is 90% ( =0. 1) 2. 35 Remark: If we would require 95% of confidence, we obtain 0. 03 0. 1089*3, 182, and would not reject the hypothesis. Reject

An alternative way to compute it! 1. Compute variance for the difference in accuracy 2. Compute t statistics value 3. See if t value is in (- , -t /2, k-1) or (t /2, k-1, ) 1. 2. Yes, reject null hypothesis: one method is significantly better than the other method No, no method is significantly better t is t , k-1 distributed if the various measurements of di are independent

Example 1: Comparing Models on the same Data Using t-Statistic o 2 models M 1 and M 2 are compared with 4 -fold cross validation; M 1 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 84, 0. 82, 0. 80, 0. 82 and M 2 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 80, 0. 79, 0. 75, 0. 82. The average difference is 0. 03 and the required confidence level is . 2. 35<2. 77<3. 18 reject at confidence level 90%, but do not reject at level 95%

Example 2: Comparing Models on the same Data o 2 models M 1 and M 2 are compared with 4 -fold cross validation; M 1 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 90, 0. 82, 0. 76, 0. 80 and M 2 accomplishes accuracies of 0. 83, 0. 79, 0. 75. The average difference d is 0. 03 and the required confidence level is 90% ( =0. 1) Now we do not reject that the models perform similarly at almost any confidence level! Why? ?

Problems with the student t-test for cross validation Type 1 Error: probability of rejecting the null hypothesis, although it is true; in our case, the type 1 error is the probability of concluding one classifier is better, although this is not the case. Type 2 Error: Null hypothesis is not reject, although it should be rejected o In general, if (training set, test set pairs) are independent, the type 1 error of the student t-test is . o In the case of n-fold cross validation the training sets are overlapping and not independent, and therefore the type 1 error is significantly larger than for n-fold cross validation, due to the fact that the variance of accuracy differences between classifiers is underestimated by the student t-test approach. o Consequently, modifications of the student t-test have been proposed, e. g. [Bouckaert&Frank], for n-fold cross validation.

A modified t-statistics for r runs of k-fold cross-validation [Bouckaert&Frank] 1. 2. 3. Compute variance for r runs of k-fold cross-validation Compute modified t statistics value See if t value is in (- , -t /2, k-1) or (t /2, k-1, ): 1. Yes, reject null hypothesis: one method is significantly better than the other method 2. No, no method is significantly better Variance of t-variable is increased considering the fact that test- and training sets overlap; n 2/n 1 is the ratio of test examples over training examples. http: //www. cs. waikato. ac. nz/~ml/publications/2004/bouckaert-frank. pdf

[Bouckaert&Frank] for Example 1: 1 run of 4 -fold cross-validation Sqrt(4)=2 is used in the standard t-test whereas here we use a smaller number which corresponds to using a higher variance estimate. Remark: was 2. 77 for original t-test