Data Collection Methods CHAPTER 8 1 Chapter Objectives

Data Collection Methods CHAPTER 8 1

Chapter Objectives n n Know the difference between primary and secondary data and their sources. Know the advantages and disadvantages of each data collection method. Make logical decisions as to the appropriate data collection methods for specific study. Be able to demonstrate your skills in interviewing others, and to design questionnaires. 2

Sources of Data n Primary data: information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study. n Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels n Secondary data: information gathered from sources already existing. n Examples: company records or archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on. 3

Sources of Data 1. Primary sources: Refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study. Examples of sources of Primary data are individuals, focus groups, the internet could also serve as a primary data source when questionnaires are administered over it. 4

Sources of Data 2. Secondary sources: Refer to information gathered from sources already existing from several sources. As for example, company records, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the internet, and so on. 5

Data collection Methods n Data collection Methods are an integral part of research design. There are several data collection methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. 6

Data collection Methods n Data collection methods include three main methods: 1 - Interviewing: It could be unstructured or structured interviews. 2 - Questionnaires 3 - Other Methods of Data Collection 7

Principles of Questionnaire Design. 8

Interviewing § The unstructured and structured interviews have several forms: Interviews Face-to-face Telephone interviews Computer-assisted interviews Electronic media interviews 9

Unstructured Interviews n n Unstructured Interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent. The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further indepth investigation. 10

Structured Interviews n n n Structured Interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone or through the medium of a PC. The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem. 11

Interviewing n The Questioning Technique ü Funneling In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it is advisable to ask open-ended questions to get a broad idea and form some impressions about the situation. For example a question that could be asked, would be: “what are some of your feelings about working for this organization? ” 12

Interviewing n The Questioning Technique Unbiased Questions It is important to ask questions in a way that would ensure the least bias in the response. For example: “Tell me how you experience your job” this question is better than, “The work you do must be really boring; let me hear how you experience it” ü 13

Interviewing n The Questioning Technique ü Clarifying Issues To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the respondent intends to represent them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase important information given by the respondent. For example, if the interviewee says, “There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at all. It is the juniors who always get promoted”. The researcher might interject and ask, “So you are saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of even capable seniors. ” 14

Interviewing n The Questioning Technique ü Helping the Respondent to Think Through Issues. If the respondent is not able to verbalize his perceptions, or replies, “I don’t know, ” the researcher should ask the question in a simpler way or rephrase it. For example, the respondent might be asked which task he would prefer to do: serve a customer or do some filing work. If the answer is “serve the customer, ” the researcher might use another aspect of the respondent’s job and ask the paired-choice question again. The respondent can sort out which aspects of the job he likes better than others. 15

Interviewing n The Questioning Technique ü v Taking Notes when conducting interviews, it is important that the researcher makes written notes as the interviews are taking place, or as soon as the interview is terminated. The interviewer should not rely on memory. Information based solely on recall introduces bias into the research. The interviews can be recorded on tape if the respondent has no objections. 16

Personal Interview n Advantages n n n Can clarify doubts about questionnaire Can pick up non-verbal cues Relatively high response/cooperation Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used Disadvantages n n n High costs and time intensive Geographical limitations Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers Trained interviewers 17

Telephone Interview n Advantages n n Discomfort of face to face is avoided Faster / Number of calls per day could be high Lower cost Disadvantages n n n Interview length must be limited Low response rate No facial expressions 18

Tips for Interviews 19

Data collection Methods Administering Questionnaires Ø Ø Personally administered. Sent through the mail. Electronically administered. Other techniques. (see Figure 8. 2) 20

Questionnaire Design n Definition A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions to which the respondent records his answers n Steps 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine the content of the questionnaire Determine the form of response Determine the wording of the questions Determine the question sequence Write cover letter 21

Question Wording n Avoid double-barreled questions n Avoid ambiguous questions and words n Use of ordinary words n Avoid leading or biasing questions n Social desirability n Avoid recall depended questions 23

Question Wording n Use positive and negative statements n n n Dresdner delivers high quality banking service Dresdner has poor customer operational support Avoid double negatives Limit the length of the questions Rules of thumb: n < 20 words n < one full line in print 24

Question Sequence Personal and sensitive data at the end.

Guidelines for Questionnaire Design n Ø Ø Classification Data or Personal Information. Personal information elicit such information as age, educational level, marital status, and income. Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the name of the respondent. It is a matter of choice for the researcher to let the personal information appears in the beginning or at the end of the questionnaire. 25

Guidelines for Questionnaire Design n Ø Classification Data or Personal Information. It is a wise policy to ask for the personal information by providing a range of response options, rather than asking exact figures. For example, the variables can be tapped as shown below: 26

Guidelines for Questionnaire Design n Example 1 Age (years) Under 20 q 20 – 30 q 31 – 40 q 41 – 50 q 51 – 60 q Over 60 q Annual Income □ Less than $20, 000 □ $20, 000 -30, 000 □ $30, 001 -40, 000 □ $40, 001 -50, 000 □ $50, 001 -70, 000 □ $ Over 70, 000 27

Principles of Measurement n n There are some principles of measurement to be followed to ensure that the data collected are appropriate to test our hypotheses. These refer to the scales and scaling techniques used in measuring concepts, as well as the assessment of reliability and validity or the measures used, which were all discussed before. 28

Principles of Measurement n n n Appropriate scales have to be used depending on the type of data that need to be obtained. Wherever possible, the interval and ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal scales. Once data are obtained, the “goodness of data” is assessed through tests of validity and reliability. Validity establishes how well a technique, instrument, or process measures a particular concept, and reliability indicates how stably and consistently the instrument taps the variable. 29

General Appearance of the Questionnaire n It is necessary to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat questionnaire have the following elements: A good introduction Ø Organizing questions Ø Giving instructions and guidance Ø Good alignment These elements are briefly discussed with examples. Ø 30

Cover Letter n n The cover letter is the introductory page of the questionnaire It includes: n n Identification of the researcher Motivation for respondents to fill it in Confidentiality Thanking of the respondent. 31

General Appearance of the Questionnaire n n Example 2 A production manager wants to assess the reactions of the blue-collar workers in his department to the introduction of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems. He is particularly interested to know how they would perceive the effects of CIM on: a. their future jobs b. additional training that they will have to receive c. future job advancement. Design a questionnaire for the production manager. 32

General Appearance of the Questionnaire Jordan Software Enterprises P. O. Box 2231 Amman-Jordan Date----- Dear Employee, As we had discussed in our meetings, Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) will form a part of our operations in the future. We would like to know how you visualize certain aspects of the future environment as we introduce the changes. Please take a few minutes to complete this short questionnaire and return it to the locked box in the headquarter office. Thank you for responding within the next five days. Ahmad Rasheed Production Manager 33

General Appearance of the Questionnaire 1. Personal information ( place a mark on the appropriate place) Job Status Number of years Worked in the Department --Machinist -- Less than 1 --Inspector -- 1 -2 ---Forman -- 3 -5 --Surveyor -- 5 -10 -- Other -- Over 10 years 34

General Appearance of the Questionnaire 2. Your Opinion regarding the following. Please circle the appropriate number for each of the items using the scale below. Strongly Neither Agree Strongly Agree Nor Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 1. I will need additional training 1 2 3 4 5 to work in the changed environment. 2. The new system will offer me 1 2 3 4 5 better opportunities for advancement. 3. The opportunities for training 1 2 3 4 5 will have to be enhanced with CIM. 35 following

General Appearance of the Questionnaire 4. I am not sure if CIM will need all the people we now have in this department. 5. I feel that most of us may not have better opportunities for future promotions in the new manufacturing environment. 6. Most of us will need special training to work with CIM. 7. I am sure the future looks bright for most of us here. 1 2 3 4 5 36

General Appearance of the Questionnaire n n n Items 4 and 7 measure opinion about their future jobs. 1, 3, and 6 measure perceived training needs. 2, and 5 measure job advancement. 37

General Appearance of the Questionnaire Example 3 The president of Mideast Co. suspects that most of the 500 male and female employees of the organization are somewhat alienated from work. He is also of the view that those who are more involved (less alienated) are also the ones who experience greater satisfaction with their work lives. n Design a questionnaire the president could use to test his hypothesis. n 38

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 Before we can design a questionnaire, we need to list the variables to be tapped and operationally define the more abstract concepts. The following variables are mentioned in the study: 1. Involvement (or the other end, alienation). 2. Satisfaction with work life. n 39

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 n n The following demographic variables might be of interest to the study: 3. Gender 4. Tenure (number of years in the organization) 5. Job level 6. Age 7. Education These demographic variables help to describe the sample, also, they might have an influence on the involvement (or alienation) of the employees, their level of satisfaction, and the relationship between the two. 40

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 n n Operational Definition of Involvement would include the dimensions of the job being of central interest to individuals, and the major happiness being derived from the job. Low involvement can be considered as alienation. Items that measure involvement are: 1. The major happiness of my life is derived from my job. 2. Time at work flies by quickly. 3. Working here is boring. 4. Nothing in life is as important as work. 5. I live, eat, and breathe my job. 6. My work helps me establish who I am. 41

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 n n 1. 2. 3. Operational Definition of Satisfaction would include dimensions of satisfactions with various aspects of the work environment such as with pay, supervision, promotion, and the like. Questions that describe satisfaction at work place are: To what extent would you agree with the following statements? My work is fascinating. My work gives me a sense of accomplishment. My supervisor praises good work. 42

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. My pay is barely adequate to take care of my expenses. My co-workers are very stimulating. The opportunities for advancement are very good here. I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace. People can live comfortably with their pay in this organization. My supervisor is not very capable. The promotion policies here are very unfair. 43

Questionnaire Mideast Company, Inc. P. O. Box 2345 Amman-Jordan December 4, 2006 Dear Employee, As the president of your company, I am interested in conducting a mini survey on your reactions to working in this organization. Your responses would give me an indication of any changes that may be necessary for offering you a better quality of work life. Your honest and straightforward answers will aid me to help you. I do not need your names- only truthful answers. Suggestions from you will be implemented by a Committee if considered suitable. Thank you for responding within a week’s time. My best wishes Mohammad Al-Farouki, President 44

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 Please check the blanks most appropriate for the items below. 1. Personal Data Department in which you are working: ------i. Age (years) ii. Education iii. Sex - under 25 - high school -F - 25 -35 - college -M - 36 -45 - bachelor’s degree - 46 -55 - master’s degree - over 55 - doctoral degree - other 45

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 iv. Job Level - manager supervisor clerk secretary technician other (specify) v. Number of years in this organization - less than 1 - 1 -3 - 4 -8 - 9 -15 - over 15 years 46

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 2. Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how experience your work life in general. Please circle the appropriate number of the scales below. On a scale of 1 to 5, (1) denoting very low agreement and (5) denoting very high agreement, to what extent would you agree with the following statements? 47

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 1. The major happiness Of my life is derived From my job. 2. Time at work flies by Quickly. 3. Working here is boring 4. Nothing in life is more important than work. 5. I live, eat , and breathe my job. Very Low Very High 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 48

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 6. My work helps me establish who I am. 7. My work is fascinating. 8. My work gives me a sense of accomplishment 9. My supervisor praises good work. 10. My pay is not adequate to take care of my expenses. 11. My co-workers are very stimulating. 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 49

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 12. The opportunity for advancement is very good here. 1 13. I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace. 1 14. People can live comfortably with their pay in this organization. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 50 4 5

General Appearance of the Questionnaire: Example 3 15. My supervisor is not much capable. 16. The promotion policies are very unfair. 1 2 3 4 5 In the space provided below, please make any comments you wish regarding any aspect of the work or organization. Your suggestions for improvement will be very much appreciated. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Thank you 51

Data collection Methods: Other Methods of Data Collection Observational Surveys. It is possible to gather data without asking questions of respondents. People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviors can be noted and recorded. Ø People movements, work habits, their facial expressions of joy, anger, and other emotions , and body language can be observed. 52

Structured Observations n Recording pre-specified behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner. n Quantitative in nature n Different types n Personal observation n Electronic observation 53

Observational Surveys n The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data: Ø Ø Nonparticipant-Observer Participant-Observer 54

Nonparticipant-Observer n n n The researcher may collect the needed data without becoming an integral part of the organizational system. For example, the researcher might sit in the corner of an office and watch and record how the manager spends his time. Observation of all the activities of managers, over a period of several days, will allow the researcher to make some generalizations on how managers spend their time. 55

Participant-Observer n n The researcher may play the role of the participant-observer. The researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part of the work team. For instance, if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in work organization, then he may join the organization as an employee and observe the dynamics in groups while being a part of the work groups. 56

Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies n Structured Observational Studies Both the nonparticipant-observer and participant-observer could be either structured or unstructured. 57

Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies n ü Structured Observational Studies The observer has a predetermined set of categories of activities or phenomena planned to be studied. People can be observed in their natural work environment and their normal activities and behaviors, and can be noted and recorded. 58

Structured Versus Unstructured Observational Studies n Unstructured Observational Studies If the observer has no definite ideas of the particular aspects that need focus, he could record everything that is observed. 59

Mechanical Observation n Machines can provide data by recording the events of interest as they occur, without a researcher being physically present. Films and electronic recording devices such as video cameras can be used to record data. Such mechanically observed data are error-free. 60

Advantages of Observational Studies 1. The data are more reliable and free from respondent bias. 2. It is easier to note the effects of environmental influences on specific outcomes. 3. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals whom are unable to give information ( like small children). 4. It captures the attitudes, facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviors, but cannot capture thought of the individuals. 5. Observer have to be trained in what and how to observe, and ways to avoid observer bias. 61

Disadvantages of Observational Studies 1. It is necessary for the observer to be physically present over a long period of time (unless a camera or another mechanical system can capture the events of interest). 2. It is slow, tedious, and expensive. 62

Advantages and Disadvantages of Summary of Observational Studies 63

Mulimethods of Data Collection 64

Ethics and the Researcher n Ø Ø Ø Several ethical issues should be addressed while collecting data. These pertain to: those who sponsor the research those who collect the data and those who offer them. 65

Ethics and the Sponsors 1. 2. 3. The sponsors should ask for the study to be done to better the purpose of the organization, and not for any other self-serving reason. They should respect the confidentiality of the data obtained by the researcher, and not ask for the individual or group responses to be disclosed to them, or ask to see the questionnaires. They should have an open mind in accepting the results and recommendations in the report presented by the researcher. 66

Ethics and the Researcher 1. 2. Treating the information given by the respondent as strictly confidential and guarding his privacy is one of the primary responsibilities of the researcher. The researcher should not misrepresent the nature of the study to subjects, especially in lab experiments. The purpose of the research must be explained to them. 67

Ethics and the Researcher 3. 4. Personal information should not be solicited, and if it is absolutely necessary for the project, it should be tapped with high sensitivity to the respondent, offering specific reasons therefore. Whatever be the nature of data collection method, the self-esteem and self-respect of the subjects should never be violated. 68

Ethics and the Researcher 5. 6. 7. 8. No one should be forced to respond to the survey. Nonparticipant-observers should be as nonintrusive as possible. His personal values could easily bias the data. Subjects should never be exposed to situations where they could be subject to physical or mental harm. There should be absolutely no misrepresentation or distortion in reporting the data collected during the study. 69

Ethical Behavior of the Respondents 1. 2. The subject, once having exercised the choice to participate in a study, should cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as responding to a survey or taking part in an experiment. The respondent also has an obligation to be truthful and honest in the responses. Misrepresentation or giving information, knowing it to be untrue, should be avoided. 70

Practice Exercise on Good and Bad Questions Comment on each of the following questions stating whether they are good or bad and the reasons for your answer. Do not worry about their scaling. 1. If you have been in the company for over 15 years, please indicate the date of your joining this company. 2. My boss is good but excitable in his dealing with others. 3. Working women should opt not to have children. n 71

Practice Exercise on Good and Bad Questions 4. Investment in children’s future should be an important goal of the administration. 5. This job uses a lot of the skills that I possess. 6. If this country is to remain competitive, should we not be spending more on research? 72

Answers 1. Bad question: recall dependent. 2. Bad: Double-barreled. 3. Bad: Loaded question; an emotional issue for women. 4. Bad: Social desirability. 5. Good question. No problem with wording. 6. Bad question: Leading question. 73

Practice Exercise on Data Collection What data collection methods would most appropriately be used for the following and why? a. A study of audience reactions to a political speaker. n Answer: Both observation and unstructured interviews. b. A study of students’ reactions to how the University is run. Answer: Probably a short questionnaire, with an open-ended question at the end. 74

Practice Exercise on Data Collection c. A study of the student parking problems in Yarmouk University area. Answer: unstructured interviews in the beginning, and later, a short questionnaire. d. A study of the performance of Yarmouk U. graduates in their jobs. Answer: A questionnaire to the employers. e. A study by the university head seeking the student opinions about the quality of education in their departments. Answer: In the beginning, unstructured interviews and later, a questionnaire. 75