CT 200 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM Curriculum conception Curriculum

CT 200: PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM Curriculum conception; Curriculum as a subject matter; depicts it as the combination of subject matter to form a body of content to be taught. Curriculum as an experience; sees curriculum as a set of experience which learners encounter in educational content. Most of these experiences have seen purposely planned by the means of written curriculum but most experiences are encountered by learners in educational content unplanned. Curriculum as an intention; comprehensive planning of the experiences for students that are pred -determined before they commence that curriculum.

Curriculum as the cultural production; that is what respect the culture of the particular society the role of the school base on most important knowledge and value used by one generation to the succession generation. Curriculum as the process; view those process of providing continuous personal meaning to individual. Emphasize the individual capacity to participate and to recapitalize upon once experience of life, emphasize an experimental respective to learn and hence to the curriculum, Definitions of curriculum Marsh and Wille’s (2003) curriculum is the interrelated set of plans and experiences students undertake under the guidance of the school. Doll (1982) formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge, skills, attitude appreciation and values.

From those definitions scholars perceive curriculum as learning experience, written documents indicate objectives process and content (Welton) Interrelated set of plans guided by school (marsh and willies) Types of curriculum The ideal/recommended curriculum; refers to what is proposed by the scholars to meet a need consequently perceiving as the most appropriate curriculum for learners used to solve different problems encounter the learners. Entitlement curriculum; refers to what society believe learners should expect to be as part of other learning to become the effective member of the society used to shape the behavior of the students. The intended /written curriculum; refers to what organization develop to learners in their educational system and what should be taught. Used in learning documentary and the learners in that system. Implemented Curriculum; level of the learners, syllabus and characteristics of the learners. What is actually taught by teachers in their classrooms as they and their students interacts with their intended

The achieved curriculum; giving test the learners, group or individual assignment or examination. What students actually learnt as the result of interaction with the implemented curriculum. The attained curriculum; reveals those learning acquired by students basing upon the intended curriculum and implemented curriculum at school level through the syllabus. Preparing scheme of work, lesson plan, and lesson notes. The hidden/covert curriculum; is the curriculum which implies the way structure, nature of the school much of which revolve around daily or established routing. Assignment; from different curriculum conception, what is your definition of the term curriculum? In reflection to your educational institution (school) how different curriculum discussed practiced? Curriculum development model • A model is an exemplified representation of reality which is often depicted in a diagrammatical form. • The purpose of the model is to provide a picture for examining the variable that constructed reality. • In curriculum we use graphical model as they enable curriculum developers to visualize curriculum elements, their relationship, the process of development, implementations and evaluation. • A representative sample of more significant view points has been included in the form of continuum curriculum.

The continuum of curriculum model Rational/Objective model, Cyclical model, Dynamic/Interactive model. a) Rational/Objective model; by Tyler Taba. The model emphasizes the fixed sequence curriculum. Elements beginning with objectives following sequential pattern to content method and finally evaluation. Objectives serves as the basis for devising subsequent elements and evaluation indicates the degree of achievements of the intended objectives. Ralph Tyler (1949) Tyler argued that curriculum development needed to be logical and systematical. He also argued that to develop any curriculum one had to pose four fundamental questions; 1. What the educational purpose should the school seek to attain (objectives) Students should be able to involve curriculum. 1. What educational experiences are like to attain those objectives (instructional strategies for content) what skills can be required. 1. How can those educational experiences be organized effectively (organizing learning experiences) ways in which learning experiences can be organized. 1. How can we determine whether those purpose had been attained (assessment and evaluation)

Tyler’s model of curriculum development. Objective—relating learning Experiences—organizing learning Experiences—evaluation. Hilda Taba; modified Tyler’s basic model to become representative of curriculum development. While still linear in approach Taba argued for more information respect at each stage of curriculum process. She added that to be rational sequential approach to curriculum development rather than a rule of thumb procedure is essential. In order to determine to the purpose of the school and the nature of the curriculum scientific curriculum development needs to train upon analysis of society and culture, studies of the learner, learning process and the nature of the knowledge. In order to get the objectives the content should consider traditional customers. For curriculum development to be orderly and logical task, one need to examine closely the order in which curriculum decisions are made and are applied as follows; Step 1. Diagnosis of needs. Step 2. Formulation of objectives. Step 3. Selection of content Step 4. Organization of content Step 5. Experiences selection of learning Step 6. Organization of learning experiences.

Strength of rational model • It is simple and linear because it simplifies what it confuses. • Its nature of being logical structure provides it with useful curriculum for planning and devising curriculum. • Time efficiency approach to meet the curriculum taste. It emphasizes the role and value of the objectives. That the objectives serve the purpose of selecting learning experience and evaluation. Weakness of the rational model • The model presents the specific objectives to be achieved but even learning occurs beyond these objectives due to factors that have not been seen. It avoids changes. • The evaluation should not be the terminal stage but should take place at every stage from objective to evaluation. • What to be done after evaluation is not indicated. • The model is not dynamic and commonly whenever changes to be done, it need to start from starting point. No change within the process. Cyclic model of curriculum development [wheeler] • In his book curriculum process (1957) • Each element is related and interdependent and follow a cyclical pattern in each phase is a logical development of the proceeding one.

• Work in one phase cannot be attained until some work is alone in proceeding phase. • The suggested five interrelated phase in the curriculum process by extending the idea by Tyler and particularly Taba. The following are the five phases as suggested; Wheelers phases of curriculum a. Selection of aims, goals and objectives. b. Selection of learning experiences to help achieve those aims, goals and objectives. c. Selection of content through which certain type of experiences may be affected. d. Organization and integration of learning experiences and control with the help of teaching learning process. e. Evaluation of each phase and the achievement of goals. N. B • In wheelers model evaluation is not terminal. • It also sets the school objectives as the final as well as the first. • Rational approach is still evident by requiring curriculum developer to follow step one up to the five in sequential pattern. • The model indicates that these steps are in continuous that respond to changes within educational. • Aims are formulated from general to specific curriculum planning. Strength of cyclic model

• Provide baseline data which effective objectives may be attained from the nature of the society and the history. • The element of curriculum to be seen continuous enable to cope with new and reacting to change circumstances. • Reduce dependence is specifically stated objectives but the dependence of the prior phase to the achievement of the next phase. Weakness of cyclic mode • To commence with the situation analysis and proceeding through successive elements of curriculum does not allow the change between the processes although it is possible that the stimulus for change may be originated from any curriculum element. The only change should be done in selection of content. • Time consuming because phase are interrelated and the implementation of each phase depend on early one.

Assignment 2 After viewing two model of curriculum how does interactive model by keny differ from that of Tyler? From your opinion which curriculum model do you think is best for curriculum development? Issues in curriculum centralization and decentralization Centralized educational system; • Is a non system model. • Guided by the idea of who plans, finance and manage. . . there is a central control over the curriculum that is government board. • it has three stages • Decision are made by the central government • It is based on developing countries. • No tryout stage. • Depend on similar curriculum and examination. • View curriculum as the set of subject matter to be covered. A). Centralized curriculum is extended by; • The educational institutions are losing ability to determine what they teach, in what level and in which

• sequence. • Educational issues are not determined on education grounds. • Changes in the curriculum are formerly registered and transmitted to schools. That is schools have no power to change issues related to curriculum. • There are research bodies to make forum in educational issues. • National exams are centralized and done by all students no matter of the context different. • Development of curriculum materials follows under three stages such as; Policy formulation, program and material development and curriculum implementation and quality centered. B). Decentralization educational system; Refers to the system of systematic model What is planned and developed to the curriculum is decided by several groups of educational stakeholders. Development of curriculum falls under five stages; 1. Situational analysis. 2. Planning and material development. 3. Tryout to see teaching/learning materials methods and evaluation procedures.

4. Implementation quality control which includes summative or formative. 5. Decision making authority responsibility and task are transferred from higher to lower level or between organizations. Differences between centralized and decentralized education curriculum. Decentralized i. it has five stages. It have three stages ii. based on the developed countries Based on developing countries. iii. it has tryout stage. No tryout stages iv. Decision is made by several groups. Decisions are made by central government. v. different programs are proposed depending Similar curriculum and exams. on the nature of institution. vi. View curriculum as experience interaction View curriculum as the set of subject matter to be covered. between leaner and environment encounter. vii. the objectives are identified during The objectives are identified during the formulation of assessment. policies.

Stages in curriculum development. Curriculum development is an intentional process or activity which is central to the teaching and learning processes. It involves all the planning, designing, developing and implementing curriculum that guides learning and teaching. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT • Is flexible and dynamic. • Is a broad and comprehensive process. • Being much than a classroom institution. • Implies the scientific process of education. STAGES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Situational analysis/needs assessment; • It is systematic explanation of the way things are and the way they should be. • It helps the curriculum developers to understand the intention of curriculum and expectation for the completed curriculum. • It should answer the following questions; • What facilities can be used? • What problem has led to think of new training program?

• What are the needs of country professional and individual student and how can the program meet their need. • What is the intended tryout group? • Are there similar courses with similar aims? • Who are the teacher and what are their experience and skills? How can the gap be realized? • Through direct observation of how curriculum is being implemented. • Use of questionnaire to key persons like teachers, students, parent’s administration etc. • Focus group discussion. • Use of documents such as research projects. • Review of relevant literature. Planning and program development; Incorporate discussion about how and what will be included in the document it should be included. • Overall expected program outcomes. • Major content focus area as specific as possible. • Suggested instructional strategies for each content area. • Draft outline of the training program, agenda including tentative books of time for each content area. Content development, assignment with time frame for completion

Material development/instructional material; • They can be textual or non textual materials to be used to implement program e. g. syllabus, module or software. • In Tanzania the organ responsible to develop materials is TIE Tanzania instate of education. Tryout and revision; • The curriculum piloted with sample of the target audiences to validate the content, instructional strategies and expected outcomes of the training programs. • In this stage we are looking to see if ; --It met the needs of the learning audience or not, if not, why? --Resources are used to their best to guide over effective use in training. --The instructional strategies piloted help learners successful complete the program objectives. Implementation; • Is the situation whereby the actual implementation of program is affected to all schools. Evaluation; • This stage can take the form of formative or summative evaluation. • The aim is to check the effectiveness of the existing program. • Curriculum shows the suggestion e. g. curriculum change or curriculum innovation.

Assignment; by employing stages of curriculum development, develop a syllabus of a new course while showing what is done in every stage.

Curriculum aims, goals and objectives Curriculum aims/purposes; Are broad general statements of purpose of education of the given country providing general education aims throughout the country. This may also defined as the general statements which are usually written in ambiguous term using words like learn, know, understand, appreciate and these are not directly measurable. Curriculum developers categorized them in three levels; National level School level Individual subject level. Goals of curriculum; Listing your course goals in the clearest way to communicate expectations to students. The syllabus is a good place for them. Well written goals and objectives inform all in what to learn and how assessment will occur. What are goals; are generalized statement about what to be learned. Think of them as target to be hit or achieved. They are derived from various aims and provide curriculum decision makers with broad statement of what they should accomplish in terms of students learning as the result of a particular education or training programs. .

Characteristics of curriculum goals There is a relationship between it and education aims. Curriculum goals are stated in general terms that provide a direction of curriculum development They are stated broadly enough to lead somebody to obtain specific objectives. With themselves do not express the desired learning but describe the characteristics of the well educated person. They are used in policy making and planning for most of education matters. Relate in accomplishments of all learners in general. (At the end of the period learners should understand the sub-topic. Curriculum objectives in education; what are objectives? • Are the foundation upon which you can build learn and assess that you can prove and meet your overall course or lesson goals. • Are tools you use to make sure that you reach your goals. they are arrows you shoot towards your target (goals). What are the curriculum objectives? • Are statements of purposes or aims stated in and measurable term.

• Are derived from educational goals and provide opportunity for evaluating student achievements. • They are practical in nature. They vary in specificity from objectives of a single lesson to objective of entire lesson or course Importance of curriculum objectives; Taba (1962) mentions the function of curriculum objectives as follows; • To guide the decision about the selection of content and learning experiences as well as teaching strategies to be used in the classroom. • To provide criteria on what to teach (content) and how to teach (strategies) • They serve to clarify the type of power (mental) or other powers need to be developed. These powers are cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain. • They provide basis for evaluating learner’s achievements. • They suggest for example the use of projector for critical thinking Instructional objectives; • Are statements of performance to be demonstrated by each student in the classroom. Other names for instructional objectives are performance objectives, competence objectives or behavioral objectives. What to be demonstrated? • Provide direction for instructional process by clarifying the learning objectives. • Provide basis for evaluating students learning by clarifying.

Differences between goals and objectives. Goals objectives Broad statements Specific General intention purposes Precise, clear intangible Tangible Abstract Concrete. Generally are hard to measure. Measurable.

Levels of instructional objectives; There are two levels of instructional objectives. • General instructional objectives • Specific instructional objectives. General instructive objectives • Are intended outcomes of instructions that are being stated in general term to encompass a set of specific learning outcomes. • Define the outcome of the learning activities (learning outcomes) and represents the general orientation of the lesson. • Names or terms being used to state general instructional objectives are known, understanding, appreciation. Example; how to state general objectives, Topic; Establishment of colonial economy. • Example of instructional objectives; students should understand the whole concept of colonial economy, or • By the end of the lesson of 40 minutes students should be able to explain the whole concept of colonial economy. Specific instructional objectives;

• Are intended outcome of instruction that had been stated in terms of specific and observable students performance. • How to write specific instructional objectives; • The following are the general rules which should prove useful in writing specific instructional objectives. • Be concise; an instructional objective is the specific statement of what the learners they will be able to do when they complete the instructions. (dick et al. . 2005) • Be singular; you should focus on one aspect of behavior. • Be realistic; an instructional objective should focus on observable behavior, not on teacher illusion or indefinable tracts. The components of instructional objectives • The a, b c, d method of writing objectives is an excellent way to structure in instructional objectives. in this methods A -Stands for audience B -Stands for behavior c - Condition d - Degree of master needed. The abcd methods of writing educational objectives helps to assure that all the critical components are included in the objectives you’re starting. Audience; always the who, the students will be able to remember that the audience is always the learner and not the instructor.

Blooms taxonomy of objectives; What is it? This is the classification of learning objectives with the educational proposed in 1956 by a committee of educators chaired by Benjamin bloom. It refers to the classification of the different objectives that educators set for students learning. Blooms taxonomy divides educational objectives in to three domains. Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domain. sometimes loosely describe as known/head feeling/heart and doing/hand respectively. Within the domain learning at the higher levels it depends on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skill at low level. Domains of blooms taxonomy of objectives Cognitive objectives; knowledge/head respective. • The profounder is bloom in 1956. • they are objectives that specify what the learner will be able to do intellectually as the result of instruction. e. g. given a description of planet. The students will be able to identify the planet as demonstrated verbally or in writing.

Behavior; what the learner is expected to be able to do or the product or result of the doing. The behavior verb denotes and overt, observable action (behavior) such as identity, name, list, describe etc. i. e. by the end of the lesson each student should be able to define poetry. Condition; is a statement that describe the condition under which the behavior is to be performed. The condition part of an objective specify the circumstances, commands directions etc that students are given to initiate the behavior. Degree of master needed or criteria; is a set of descriptions that describe how well the behavior must be performed to satisfy the intent of the behavior verb. The criteria describe acceptable performance by describing how we considered competent. Important point regarding proper statement of instructional objectives. Never use the words understand in starting specific instructional objective. It is too vague and does not specify the measurable behavior. It is important to choose the correct key verbs to express the desired behavior you want student to produce. The action verb is the most important part element of objective and can never be omitted. It specifically states what the students will do following instruction.

• teachers are able to use bloom taxonomy of cognitive objectives to create stimulating classroom discussion at any grade/level and with any topic. asking different questions from the low level (knowledge and comprehension) questions to the higher level (appreciation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation) questions stimulated the thinking process Categories in cognitive domain; Major categories in the cognitive domain of blooms taxonomy and the verbs used for starting specific behavior learning outcomes can be discussed to as follows (six mental ability levels of blooms) Knowledge level; this level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognize the information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they were leaned. Key terms in starting objectives in this level includes to define, to indicate, e. g. can you locate the certain country in a map? , to underline, to list, to mention, to spell, to identify etc. Comprehension level; this is the next level of learning and encompasses, understanding. It requires the learner to understand the learned facts. The learner should be able to translate, comprehend and interpret the information based on the knowledge. Learners are required to understand some simplest information/issues learned in the course of teaching and learning process. key terms in this level are to choose, to locate, to compare, to label, to classify, to describe etc.

Application level; is the use of knowledge. The students select, transfers and use data and principles to complete a problem or task. . . it requires the learner to apply some sort of concepts and rules or principles inside and outside of the curriculum. The key terms are to apply, to sketch, to dramatize, to complete, to operate, to solve, to show, to find out, to illustrate, to employ, to rewrite, to draw etc. Analysis level; require the learner to break down an idea in to their components. It can only occur if the student has obtained knowledge of and comprehend the concept. The student examine, classifies, hypothesize, collect data and draw conclusion. Key terms are to analyze, to appraise, to calculate, categorize, compare, conclude, contrast, determine etc. Synthesis level; is the creative at. It is the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new by combining ideas, the students originate, integrates and combines ideas in to something that is new to him or her i. e. it require a learner to put parts together to form a new whole. Key terms are to combine, compare, generate, rearrange, assemble, collect, compose, contrast, create, design etc. Evaluation level; it requires a learner to make judgments or decisions about materials and methods. It is concern about the ability to judge, to value, of materials (statements, novels, poem, research, report) for a given purpose. The students appraise, assess or criticize on bases of specific standard and criteria. Key terms appraise, to justify, evaluate, choose, argue, or asses, contrast etc.

Affective domain; • This domain emphasizes the interest value and appreciation of the individual. • It includes those objectives which deal with feelings, attitudes, or value and emotions which can artificially be externally observed. Blooms (1956) classify the affective domain in five categories as follows; Receiving level; this is being aware or conscious of an event. A learner is expected to be willing or committed to knowing something. e. g. the pupil will listen to the music on the cassette player. Key terms accept, attend, develop, recognize. responding level; is the reaction to an event. After the learner being aware from event is to respond towards it. A learner pays active attention to a certain phenomena. E. g the pupil will participate in the drama festival. Key terms complete, dramatize, cooperate, discuss, examine, respond etc. Valuing level; this is a perception of worth or value. e. g. form six students will sponsor the form four students to go for a cultural show at Nairobi theatre. Key terms accept, defend, devote, pause, seek, etc Organization level; it involves commitment to a set of values e. g. students will organize themselves in study groups of six members. .

terms organize, codify, discriminate, display, order, systematize, weigh etc Characterization level; it involves totally behavior consisted with internalized value system. The students hold a particular value or belief that now exerts the influence on his or her behavior so that it becomes characteristics. Key term characterize. Example; the student will be bound by the school rule and regulation at all time. Psychomotor domain P. D amosh (simpsion, 1972) includes physical movement, and the use of motor-skills areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or technique in implication. Eg ; to be able to measure certain………… It is characterized by progressive level of behavior from observation Mastering of physical skill;

LEVEL/ TAXONOMY OF PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN 1. Observing Active mental attending of physical event. E. g. The learner watch more experienced person. Other mental activity such as reading may be part of observation process. 2. Imitating Attempted copying of physical behavior. This is due 1 st steps in learning skills. The learner is observed which given direction and feedback on performance. 3. Practicing Trying a specific physical activity over and over so that for master it. The skills are repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly. 4. Adapting Under this level where by minor adjustment is true physical activity are made in order to perfect it. The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside perfective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation. ANOTHER WAY OF CATEGORIZE THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN.

Sampson (1972) provided 7 levels of psychomotor domain by listening them from simplest behavior to the most complex one. 1. Perception; the ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation through cues selection, t translations Example; adjust heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Keywords; chooses, describes, detect, differentiate. 2. Set; readiness to act, it includes mental, physical with effective motional sets. These three sets are disposition that predetermined a person response to different situation eg knows acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one’s abilities and limitations show desire to learn a new process (motivation) Keywords; begins, displays, explains, mores, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, etc 3. Guided response; the early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitating. Example performing mathematics equation as demonstrated. Follow instruction to build the model. Response hand signal of instruct while learning to operate forklift. Keywords; copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds. 4. Mechanism; this is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skills. E. g. use a person computer.

Repair a linking Drive a car Under mechanism level you require some skills which will help you to study. Keywords; assembles, collaborate, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, manipulates, measure. 5. Complex over response; the skillful performance of motor acts that involves complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate and highly coordinated performance, requiring of minimum of energy. E. g. operate a computer. Quickly and accurately. Display competence while playing piano. Note; the keywords; are the same as mechanism but will have adjectives that indicates that the performance is quicker better more. 6. Adaptation; at this level seems to be developed the skills and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirement. Example; responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task ) Keywords; adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies, e. t. c

7. Originating; creating new ideas patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasizes creativity based upon highly developed skills. Develop a new and comprehensive program Crete a new gymnastic routine Keywords; arranges, builds, combines, component, construct, create, design, cognitive. Notes; teachers are able to use blooms taxonomy of cognitive. Example of well-written objective; Below are some example of objectives which includes; Audience (A) Behavior (B) Condition(C) Degree of mastery (D) Noted that many objectives actually put the condition first Audience-green Behavior-red Condition-blue Degree-pink

Psychomor- given a stands balance beam rose to standards height©. A student (A) should be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam from one end to the other (B) Steadily, without falling off and within of six second time span (D) Cognitive domain; Comprehensive level ‘given example constructive activity in a college classroom (c); the student (A) should be able to accurately identifying the constructs examples which explain why reach example is or is not un structivity activity(B) in twenty word or less (D) Cognitive application level – given sentence written in the past or present tense , (C) the student (A) should be Able to re write the sentence in future tense without error in tense or tense contradiction(D) cie will see her yesterday Cognitive (creation/sytensisi level) Given two cartoon, characteristics of the students choices, (C) the student (A) should be able o mention five major personally trait of each of 2 characters, combine these traits ‘ or negating opposing a short(no more than 20 frames) story bard for a cartoon(B) that illustrate 3 to 5 of major personally traits of the composite characteristics (D)

Affective- give the opportunity to work in a team of several people of different races(c) a student (A) should develop a +ve increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, (B)as measured by a checklist utilized / competence by non-team member (D) By the end of 40 min lesson (D) a student (A) should be able to name main……… By the end of 80 min lesson ( ) each student should be able to identify and write correctly the noun.

DESIGN is essential preliminary ingredient in the curriculum development process. he following; and content (what you wish is achieve) m design (how it will look like) velopment task (how to construct the curriculum. ementation and evaluation ment of a curriculum. These element include the following ESIGNS anization of the components of curriculum in order to facilitate instruction at classrooms setting.

Curriculum design it is complex and not an easy task. Curriculum design depends of philosophy of education is a respective country. TYPES(Approaches) OF CURRICULUM DESIGNS Single subject approach Different authors suggest different pattern of curriculum design. Different curriculum design reflects organization and focus. This means the way curriculum is designs is reflect it organization. Broad – field subject approach Integrated subject approach Learner – centered approach Cognitive approach 1. Single subject approach; This types of approach is concerned with teaching established body of content has been derived from the accumulated wisdom of the academic discipline it is under the subject centered design. • It probably oldest and widely used formally for curriculum organization which found in school and institution and this proposed many years ago. • It includes the organization of the subject matter. • It is common used in all over the world.

• The knowledge is divided into small parts e. g. phys, chem. , english, etc. • The emphasis is on acquisition of the subject matter knowledge. It aimed enable student to be competent on a particular subject ADVANTAGE OF SINGLE SUBJECT CURRICULUM DESIGN. • Content is well organized • Many materials are covered in a very short period of time • It is possible to determine in advance what all children will learn in various subject and grades (classes) • It is possible to determine minimum standards of performance and achievement for the knowledge specified in subject area. • It can be easily conducted • It better understand by teachers because their training was based on this method. • Curriculum planning is easier and sample. WEAKNESS OF SINGLE SUBJECT CURR DESIGN • It does not consider needs of students. • It emphasizes memorization of materials rather than high order of thinking. • It deals with different disciplines.

2. Broad field approach • It is the curriculum approach which includes several related subject into a broader curriculum. • Three or more subject are combined e. g. social studies subject is composed of history, geog, & civics or unified science composed of chemistry, phys, & biology. • Unified subject composed of chem. , physics, and biology also life skills subject. ADVANTAGE OF BROAD FIELD CURRICULUM DESIGN • It attempts to develop some kind of synthesis for entire branch of knowledge. • It combines separate subject into a single course. this enables learners to see the relationship among various element in the curriculum. • It saves time on the school time table. CRITICISM TO BROAD FIELD APPROACH; • A teacher can be competent in one area and be weak in the other subject. A teacher who specialized in phys and mathematic will be find it difficult to teach in abroad field curriculum such as unified science subject. • It lucks depth and cultivable shallowness. • It provides only bits and pieces of information from variety of subject. • It overlooks the philosophical under pinning which are found in every field study.

3. integrated approach. The curriculum design is centered on themes that address students concern. • It is also known as core curriculum approach. • It designs to understand broader, concept and cross cut matter by transferring knowledge curriculum. The activities that are generated from this approach. EXAMPLE OF INTERGRATED CURRICULUM DESIGN a) Environmental b) Sexual and reproductive health education. c) Family life education. d ) Life skills education. ADVANTAGE OF INTEGRATED CURRICULUM DESIGN. • student used a wide range of approaches’ solve different problem’ • It help student to connect what they learn in classroom and their life outside the classroom. • Student work collaboratively. • It helps to improve quality of learning. • It develops children independence and interdependence efficient and motivated learners. • Enable children to perceive the curriculum as relevant to their learning needs. • It enhances teaching and learning more effectively than through separate subject approach.

CRITISM TO INTERGRATED CURRICULUM. • It requires intensive planning and training of those stake holders to implement the curriculum. CHILD –CENTERED DESIGN It also known as activity –design. • The curriculum based on the needs purposes and interest of children e. g. John Dewey, Pesta Lozz. • The learner is not considering as passive individual, rather an individual who engaged in his/her own environment. ADVANTAGE OF CHILD –CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN. • The need and interest of student are considered in the selection and organization of contest. • It allows students to be actives and acquire skills and procedures that will be applicable to the outside world. • Children are motivated to learn because they are actively involved in learning. • The curriculum utilizes all the senses and multiple intelligences.

CRITISMS TO CHILD – CENTERED DESIGN • The interest and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge • Interest and needs of students are usually short lived, change with time and are influenced by the available condition. • Specialist may not be in a better position or assume to the know enough about human growth development and learning to be able to plan for individual students. • It is expensive to produce materials to satisfy the needs and interests of individual students in a school • It is accused of shallowness, critical analysis and in depth coverage of subject contents is inhibited • It provides students with experience that give them chance to apply their skills and knowledge to solve a challenging problem COGNITIVE APPROACH • The cognitive curriculum design focuses on developing students cognitive skills, or problem solving • It encourages development of students, cognitive, social and problem solving skills • It should maintain a consistent ethics that promotes innovation, creativity and professionalism. Ensures that it is accessible to a wide range of field of life

EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM: Basic concept in curriculum evaluation: • EVALUATION In education context, it is the process of making judgment by determining student’s achievements towards some pre-determined goals or objectives. It is the process that involve measurements as well as the assessment process. It facilitates to check how well something is done in terms of worthy, merits, etc. • MEASUREMENT Is the process of assigning numbers to things. It is the concerned with statement of performance, usually presented to in qualitative terms. Measurement can also involve the collection of data about teacher’s performance, student’s performance, or about performance of curriculum. • ASSESSMENT It is much narrower and technical process of determining how much the student has learned. It involves the interpretation and representation of measurement data. Essentially it concerned with making sense about a measurement data and then assigning the mark, a grade, a rank in a qualitative (81%) or qualitative (distinction credit) e. g. very good, excellent, good, poor.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT • Norm-referenced assessment: It involves the comparison of a student performance with the performance of other students in the same category. . Criteria-referenced assessment. It compares student’s performance against a set of pre-determined criteria which are necessary to complete a task. CURRICULUM EVALUATION What is it? It is the process of obtaining and providing useful information for making decisions, and judgments about curricula (Davis 1980; 49) What evaluated? Teacher, learner, content, objectives, environment. e. tc. PURPOSE OF CURRICULUM AND EVALUATION Start from the classroom level to the national level by different people i. e. Tesh to NECTA

a) NATIONAL LEVEL i) To asses general effectiveness of the total curriculum or the extent to which the learners have achieved the stated objectives. ii) To determine whether the curriculum is immotioning and raising the best materials and the best methods. iii) To determine whether the product of our school can contribute to the society. iv) To improve the technology and better the needs of students. v) To determine whether the educational program is cost effectively. b) INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL i) To improve feedback to learners, the score i. e. results obtained address student‘s strengths and weakness. ii) Means of informing parents about the progress of their students /kids. iii) For promotion to a higher grade/class. iv) Assess effectiveness of teaching process/strategies. v) For guidance and counseling. vi) To examine any effect of introducing a new curriculum

TYPES OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION 1. Diagnostic evaluation It is a method of judging the worth of instruction or curriculum before the program begins. 2. Formative evaluation It is the method of judging the worth of the program while the program activities are forming or happening. It focuses on the process. 3. Summative evaluation It is a method of judging the worth of the program at the end of the program activities. It focuses on the outcomes. MODULE 4 Factors that Influence on the curriculum development and evaluation Module objectives By the end of this module, students should be able to: • discussing Societal Psychological and Philosophical Factors that influence the Curriculum

Curriculum evaluation is the process of assessing the curriculum to see whether the objectives have been met or not. The curriculum development process involves; planning, construction, implementation and evaluation Curriculum decision making is a sociopolitical process that involves every one- Who Are the Curriculum Decision Makers? Curriculum decision makers are those groups who because of their position, profession, and status or decision authority have degree of power to determine the content to be followed in school. Curriculum decisions on development and evaluation is influenced by the following factors • Societal, • Psychological and • Philosophical factors • The Influence of Different institutions on Curriculum Development and Evaluation • The Role of the teacher in Curriculum Development and Evaluation • Societal factors that influence Curriculum Development and Evaluation • Individual and organized groups in the country or elsewhere have their own civilization of which the purpose is to Influence curriculum development due to their opinions or automatically happen. • Society has its own expectations about the alms and objectives that should be considered when

It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take into account these societal considerations. If this does not happen, the curriculum becomes Irrelevant. How Social Groups Influence Curriculum a) Special interest groups: These can be professional associations, cultural groups and religious organizations. These groups can bring their views to bear on curriculum design. Such views may concern the Inclusion of a particular book. In a course or in the school library the adoption of a new teaching method or the introduction of curricular units dealing with sexuality, race, politics, or religion. Example of such special groups include: group of women (TAMWA), CWT, Haki Elimu, street children orphans disabilities group etc. b) Group of parents These have uneven effect on curriculum positions and thus have different interests which contribute a lot in the curriculum development. The Influence of parents is indirect and more pronounced at school level through school and parents meeting, school board and committee, and also, they can exercise legal responsibilities of local school and may use such opportunities to induce curriculum that may benefit their children.

• Also, patents participate in educational activities often intended for then They may participate 1 n seminar and workshops dealing with topics such as value analysis, sex education and math skills. • These activities can provide a useful way to parents to learn not only about the topics covered but also about the teachers’ points of view • Also, parents assist teachers In Instruction in various areas such as: Teaching skills (such as pottery making, basketball); Guest speaking Leading school trips; Preparing teaching materials and maintaining student records. c) Publishers of curriculum materials • Text-boob and other supplementary materials as well as software for computer assisted instruction are commercially published and these materials have been accepted by the curriculum developers and teachers as well to control the teaching and learning materials-. : • They influence the way subject matter will be taught in schools. Publishers normally publish what to sell profitably but what will affect quality of such text • And in fact, because of the wide spread reliance on textbooks as basic teaching resource, textbooks give publishers powerful role in curriculum development

d) Subject matter specialists in areas like Geography, Biology, chemistry etc. Have highly influence in curriculum development and evaluation e) The role of News Media Another group that influences curriculum decision making is the News media which appears to be reporting notable events to the public. In the case of education, the news media might report that a school or college has had adopted a new curriculum and was achieving outstanding results fit one- district- Such. a report might create public pressure to another district to adopt the same curriculum. Also, the news media indirectly exert influence on curriculum decision makers because of what they have chosen to report about education and how they have chosen to report it. 2. Politics as a Curriculum Source and influence • From your experience as a student teacher, you may have noticed how politics influence education. This is why education is regarded as a political activity. • National Ideology and philosophy have a tremendous influence on the education system. How Political Factors Influence curriculum Design • State organs through different ministries particularly the Ministry of education is very essential In the process of curriculum development and evaluation.

• The state has power to what curriculum will be. This is because It has the laws and regulations as well as financial capacity and hence it is able to command the inclusion of different issues into the curriculum. Also, politics determine and define the goats, content, learning experiences and evaluation strategies in education. 3. Technology as a Curriculum Source and influence • The computer is the latest technological innovation that has a significant impact on education and society. If you are not computer literate, you may feel that you are not up to-date. How Technological Factors influence Curriculum design In your area, you may have noticed that a number of schools have introduced computing as one of the subjects. The Intention is to equip the learners with the requisite computer skills and knowledge. In addition to computers, other forms of electronic media are being used in teaching. These have provided a variety of learning experiences and have facilitated, individualized learning. Curriculum designers cannot afford to ignore technology and its influence on the curriculum.

4. Role of teachers in Curriculum Development and Evaluation. Teachers have great role to play and they are very important entity in curriculum development and evaluation. • Many of the numerous decisions made daily by classroom teachers are the result of long experience, and not of self-conscious planning. • Therefore, because of their previous experiences in planning flexible practices, good teachers are able to take advantage of the unforeseen opportunities that arise in their classrooms. Often teachers experience frustrations because they feel pressured publicly to describe teaching as a science, even when privately and personally they view it as primarily an art. However, beliefs of teachers may change dependent upon the professional situations they encounter. Teachers act differently towards curriculum development and evaluation and they are those who are working with: Maintaining status core without acing input to the curriculum. For them curriculum Planning involves plugging to the existing situation without attention to the resulting situation • On the other hand there are teachers who are aware of new Innovation that need’ to be Integrated in the curriculum but they fail to bring the initiatives/construction • There are teachers who take aggregates appropriate to curriculum development, they experiment things and communicate to other teachers, develop courses of study that develop research fields

How teachers influence curriculum decisions Teachers are the ones who teach in the classroom, they are trying to deduce the general objectives to the specific level for the students to achieve what is in the syllabus • Teachers routinely are evaluating teaching and providing data which are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the whole curriculum. This can be done through monthly tests or annual examinations Tanner and Tanner (ISSO) explain basic things/factors for enhancing role of teachers in curriculum development. • Teachers need to be prepared professionally. They should be helped in practicing and improving the curriculum by resourcing them with enough necessary materials for improving teaching and learning process • They should be supported to participate In curriculum development Active involvement in decision making about curriculum and in instruction are things to be considered i. e collaborative systems are needed about teachers and the head of schools • Training and orienting them to new curriculum if there is any reformation for example the curriculum change of 2005. Teachers should have been Involved In order for them to be able, to effectively implement It. 5. Philosophy and Curriculum Contemporary society and its schools are changing fundamentally and rapidly, much more than in the past. Thus our philosophy of education influences and to a large extent determines our educational decisions, choices and alternatives. It also provides educators with a basis for making such decisions as what workbooks, textbooks, or other cognitive and non-cognitive activities to utilize and how to utilize them, what home works to assign and how much of it, how to test students and how to use the results, and what courses or subject matter to emphasize.

How Philosophy Influences curriculum It provides educators especially curriculum specialists with a framework for organizing schools and classrooms It helps them answer what are the school’s purposes what subjects are if value, how students learn, and what methods and materials to use. It provides them with a framework for broad issues and tasks such as determining the goals of education, subject content and its organization in the process of teaching and learning , and in general what experiences and activities to stress in schools and classroom. it also provides with educators the basis for making such decisions as what workbooks, textbooks, or other cognitive and non-cognitive activities to utilize them, what home works to assign and how much of it, how to test students and how to use the results, and what courses or subject matter to emphasize Philosophical perspectives in education: educational philosophies There are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or world philosophies. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms all over the world and they focus heavily on WHAT we should teach the curriculum aspect.

• The perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all human beings possess the same essential nature. They recommend that schools spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining their meaningful to students • Perennialists think It Is Important that Individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may soon be outdated or found to be incorrect B. Essentialism is an educational philosophy whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional basic subjects thoroughly and rigorously. • In this philosophical school of thought, the aim of education is to instill students with the “essentials” of academic knowledge, enacting a back-to basics approach. • Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization as taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from teacher to student. Such disciplines might include Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Science, Art, and Music. Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplinary way According to essentialists, schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable

Students should be taught hard working, respect for authority and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. The proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), It. G. Rlckover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985). Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education that strives to teach students the knowledge of our society and civilization through a core curriculum. This core curriculum involves such areas that include the study of the surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and the disciplines that promote a happier, more educated living • The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational essentialism. The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary. • Essentialism is largely teacher centered, the role of the student is often passive. The teacher is the one designing the curriculum for the students based upon the core disciplines • Moreover, he or she enacts the curriculum and sets the standards to which the students must meet. As a result, the students begin to take o 4 more of a passive role in their education as they are forced to meet and learn such standards and information. C. Progressivism progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher.

These philosophical approaches are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionism. A. Perennialism • Perenlalists believe that the main purpose of education Is to cultivate and develop ability to reason, develop intellectual powers and pursue truth. They emphasize only the cognitive abilities. • Perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as relevant and meaningful today as when they were written, • They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history’s finest thinkers and writers. • Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins and Mortimer Ader in 1963 • The teachers are not concerned about the students’ interests or experiences. They use tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students’ minds

This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning s rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. • with this philosophy, learning is active and not passive whereby the learner is a problem solver and thinker who make meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. • Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. • With this philosophy, teachers are counselors to pupils and facilitators to learning. The scientific method is used by progressivist’s educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. • The Progressive education philosophy was established In America from the mid 1920 s through the mid 1950 s. • John Dewey was its foremost proponent where one of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. D. Reconstructionism/Critical Theory Social Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions to create a better society and worldwide democracy. • Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education.

• Critical theorists, like social Reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve human conditions. • Paulo Freire (1921 -1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. • in his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and oppression. • Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world. For social Reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), Inquiry,

dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.