Criminological Theory The Gendering of Criminology Feminist Theory

Criminological Theory The Gendering of Criminology: Feminist Theory Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Background l Feminism’s roots rest in antiquity l The beginning of the first wave of feminist perspective in the US is located during the 19 th century at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 l The first wave of feminism is also associated with the abolition of slavery Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Background l The industrial revolution, coupled with the rise of capitalism, had largely changed traditional family and village economies into factory production l There was a near destruction of what previously had been a valued and necessary “household” partnership between spouses, their offspring, and extended households Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes l In the early literature, many of the same assumptions emerged l These assumptions focused on crime as the result of individual physiological and psychological characteristics of women l l Thought these characteristics were universal to women and that they transcended any historical time frame Assumption that there was an inherent nature of women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes l Theoretical and research attention directed toward determining the differences between criminal and noncriminal women l l Two classes of women: l Good women who were not criminal l Bad women who were criminal Assumption that crime resulted from individual choices and women were conceptualized as freely choosing to act Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Cesare Lombroso l Evolution accounts for the uneven development of groups l In The Female Offender, female criminality was described as an inherent tendency of women who had not developed properly into feminine women with moral refinement l Criminal women were more masculine than feminine l Short, dark-haired women with moles and masculine cranial and facial features were good candidates for crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Cesare Lombroso l Women also were characterized by physiological immobility, psychological passivity, and amorality featuring a cold and calculating predisposition l Criminal women could adjust more easily than men to mental and physical pain l Criminal women were abnormal Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: W. I. Thomas l Sex and Society: Men and women were fundamentally different l Women stored energy; women were motionless and conservative l l l Lead to the decline in the stature of women, especially in civilized societies Underlying these assumptions was a focus on physiological issues Focus primarily on physiological issues. Men, for example, had more sexual energy than did women. This allowed men to pursue women for sexual reasons and allowed women, in turn, to exchange sex for domesticity Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: W. I. Thomas l The Unadjusted Girl: Thomas shifted his position on female criminality: l Female delinquency was normal under certain circumstances l Punishment of criminals should focus on rehabilitation and prevention l l There was no individual who could not be made to be socially useful Bad women exploited men for fulfillment of their desires; good women used sex as a protective measure against the future and uncertainty Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Sigmund Freud l The position of women was based on explicit biological assumptions about their nature – anatomy is destiny l The inferiority of women (and their sex organs) was recognized universally l Women had developed an inferiority complex (penis envy) l Women were irrational; men were rational Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Sigmund Freud l The deviant woman is one who is attempting to be a man l To be normal, women had to adjust to and accommodate the glorified duties of wives and mothers at the expense of gender equality l Freudianism has had a powerful influence on transforming gender and sexual ideology of proper female behavior and sexuality into a scientific framework l Used for decades to maintain female sexual repression, sexual passivity, and the “woman’s place” in the nuclear family Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Otto Pollak l Female involvement in crime was highly hidden from public view l Women were inherently deceitful because of physiological reasons l The deceitful nature of women permitted them to commit undetectable crimes Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes: Otto Pollak l Women also were vengeful, especially during their menstrual periods l False accusations were typical female crimes because they were an outgrowth of their nature and treachery l Women were treated differently by the criminal law, keeping their criminality hidden l Chivalry in the criminal justice system Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Emergence of New Questions: Bringing Women In l In 1961, Walter C. Reckless question whether any theory of delinquency would be accepted if a criminologist attempted to apply it to women l Are gendered theories generalizable? l How do issues of social structure and categories of risk apply to gendered criminology? Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Emergence of New Questions: Bringing Women In l The first wave of feminism ended in the US in 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment l Second-wave feminism denounced the domestic sphere as oppressive to women and sought to achieve equality with men in the public sphere l Contributed to the development of a number of feminist critiques of criminology and to additional questions about equality being raised by feminists Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Women’s Emancipation and Crime l In the 1960 s and 1970 s, women showed an increase participation in the workforce, and thus, new explanations of female crime were developed l Adler: Sisters in Crime argued lifting restrictions on women’s opportunities in the marketplace gave them the chance to be greedy, violent, and crime prone as men Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Women’s Emancipation and Crime l Simon: Women and Crime argued women’s increasing share of arrests for property crime might be explained by their increased opportunities in the workplace to commit crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Women’s Emancipation and Crime l Steffensmeier argued that there were greater opportunities than in the past for women to commit petty theft and fraud because of a self -service market place l Steffensmeier and Cobb provided data indicating that law enforcement and court attitudes towards female offenders are changing and that now there is a greater willingness to arrest and prosecute women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Women’s Emancipation and Crime l Criticism of Steffensmeier l Women’s roles might be changing more gradually than can be measured in the relatively short period of time examined by Steffensmeier l There was a failure to examine whether the trends that early research on female crime associated with the women’s movement were actually occurring l Both Adler and Simon ignored the impact of power relations in a patriarchy where the social structure allows men to exercise control over women’s labor Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixthand sexuality Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Patriarchy and Crime l The pervasiveness of male dominance in patriarchal society and its impact on crimes committed both by men and women l The emphasis on power differences between men and women led women into powerless types of crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Second Wave: From Women’s Emancipation and to Patriarchy : Patriarchy and Crime l Sexual abuse was explained by patriarchal dominance l l These crimes by men—and, therefore, the victimization of women—reflected the ability of men to use their power against women Little research has tested the notion that patriarchy explains female crime l Patriarchy is difficult to measure as an independent variable Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Varieties of Feminist Thought: Early Feminist Perspectives l Liberal Feminism: Gender socialization as the cause of crime l Marxist Feminism: Class and gender division of labor combine to determine the social position of women and men l Radical Feminism: Crime is an expression of men’s need to control l Socialist Feminism: Examines the connections between capitalism and patriarchy that leads men to crime and women to subordination (attempts to merge Marxist and radical feminism) l Support has been found for Marxist and social feminist arguments Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Initial feminist perspectives tended to implicitly treat women as a monolithic or homogenous unit of analysis l Feminist scholars began to argue for the importance of theories and investigations that explore how crime is shaped by the intersection of race, class, and gender (See Table 10. 1) Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Simpson noted that too often it had focused on contrasts between the criminality of males and that of females l Need to address the complex interactive effect of gender, race, and class l Gender alone does not account for variation in criminal violence Addressed violence and the underclass l l The lower class is disproportionately female and African American and, therefore, is relatively heterogeneous, the underclass is racially more homogeneous; it is primarily African American and young Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Ogle, Maier-Katkin, and Bernard’s theory on homicidal behavior among women l Patterns of homicides by women are different from those by men l Men who kill do so out of a need to control a situation l Women who kill tend to do so because they have lost control over themselves Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Richie focused on the intersection of race, gender, class, and domestic violence l These women were essentially compelled into crime by their social circumstances l Patterns of offending reflected economic marginalization, culturally constructed gendered roles for African American women, and their experiences with interpersonal violence Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Miller: Getting Played employed a gendered, ecologically oriented theoretical framework for a comparative (girls and boys) examination of African American female youths' victimization and how this victimization is embedded in their everyday life l Girls’ victimizations often occur in social and public settings Both girls and boys viewed the victimization as problems of individual character, not the result of the structural and situational context that they shared l Often see much victim blaming l Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Mullins and Miller examined the temporal, situational, and interactional features of women's violent conflicts l Women's conflicts are produced by a long series of interactional sequences that are embedded in broader macro- and meso-social contexts Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Zhang, Chin, and Miller examined how organizational context and market demand shaped the extent and nature of how women were involved in Chinese transnational human smuggling l Focused on the internal logic of an organized criminal enterprise and found that its strategies were gendered l Smuggling viewed as an altruistic community service Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l Daly and Chesney-Lind presented six distinctive features of feminist theory: 1. Gender is not a natural fact but a complex social, historical, and cultural product 2. Gender and gender relations order social life and social institutions in fundamental ways 3. Gender relations and constructs of masculinity and femininity are not symmetrical but are based on an organizing principle of men’s superiority and social and political-economic dominance over women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l l Daly and Chesney-Lind presented six distinctive features of feminist theory: 4. Systems of knowledge reflect men’s views of the natural and social worlds 5. Women should be at the center of intellectual inquiry, not peripheral, invisible, or appendages of men These points are the key elements that distinguish feminist perspectives in criminology from conventional criminology Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender l In the early 1990 s, new thinking focused on the relationship between sex and gender, and it focused in part on the idea that sex, rather than being a pre-social biological concept, was in fact socially and discursively constructed l Thinking about sex and gender dualistically can give way to new conceptualizations l Sex and gender may actually be “incorporated” or fused together in ways that make them indivisible except as linguistic constructs Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender l Messerschmidt argued that traditional criminological theories provide an incomplete understanding of crime because they omit gender from their analysis (See Table 10. 1) l Traditional theories ignore how masculinity is linked to crime and how various types of masculinity are related to different types of offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender l l Males are socialized into a hegemonic masculinity l Men define their masculinity in the labor market, the subordination of women, hetero-sexism, uncontrollable sexuality l Men must constantly accomplish/demonstrate their masculinity l If the goal is blocked, men may show their masculinity through crime Different masculinities (by class and race) emerge and have varying impacts on the contents of criminal behavior Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender l White middle-class boys are able to achieve masculinity through success in sports and in school l White working-class boys manifest oppositional conduct in school such as pranks and other mischief and outside the classroom they “do gender” through theft, fighting, or perhaps hate crimes l Racial minority lower-class and working-class boys are likely to find school boring and humiliating thus they do gender through oppositional behavior that may involve physical violence Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender l Among adult males, wife beating is a resource for affirming maleness l l More prevalent among men who are in economically precarious positions Messerschmidt’s work was important because it forced scholars to think more carefully about the features of maleness that may be implicated in crime causation and about how the intersection of race, class, and gender shape the genderspecific problems men face and how men respond to them Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l The questions of “Why do so many men beat, sexually assault, psychologically abuse, and otherwise harm their current and former intimate female partners in ways that few of us can imagine? ” underlies De. Keseredy & Schwartz’s male social support theory l Reject the idea men damage women because they are psychological pathological; instead men’s victimization of women is a social product Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l Can be seen as a strain theory that sees violence as a response to stress flowing from negative relationships l The response to the strain is situated in the context of “being a man” in the context of male peers l When a woman does not do what a man wishes, it can be experienced as insults to their “masculinity” Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l Men’s definition of and coping with situations where their masculinity feels insult are shaped intimately by “social patriarchy” l A system of gender inequality legitimated by the ideology that males are naturally dominant and privileged and women are naturally subordinate and subservient l When this does not play out, men experience it as stressful and humiliating Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l A key causal ingredient to why men lash out violently is male social support for violence against women who do not submit to a man’s authority l Male peer groups socialize their members into a very narrow conception of masculinity and differs by the group Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l Three other factors heighten the risk of female victimization: 1. 2. 3. Male peer groups “sexually objectify” women Heavy use of alcohol Absence of deterrence Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Masculinities and Crime: Male Social Support Theory l De. Keseredy and Schwartz connect the macro level (a system of social patriarchy) with the micro level (an individual’s decision to use violence against a specific woman) with the male peer group as the conduit for this macro-micro connection Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking l Gendered pathways is an approach to explaining crime that is similar to the lifecourse analysis l Females’ experiences are mapped to explore what led them to crime as well as desistance from it Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking l Daly identified five paths women took to getting to court 1. Harmed and harming women 2. Battered women 3. Street women 4. Drug-connected women 5. Other women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking l Brennan, Breitenbach, Dietrerich, Salisbury, and Van Voorhis revealed five types of women 1. Normal/situational female offenders 2. Adolescence-limited female offenders 3. Victimized, socially withdrawn and depressed female offenders 4. Chronic serious female offenders 5. Socialized/socially marginalized female offenders Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Crime l Gendered crime analysis attempts to discover the contingencies within and across gender in order to more precisely specify dynamic relationships between gender and crime l Examines how women navigate gender-stratified environments, and how they accommodate and adapt to gender inequality in their commission of crime l Women’s criminal opportunities are found to be restricted by situational changes Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Lives l Gendered lives emphasizes the significant differences in the ways that women experience society compared with men l l Requires systematic attention to gender well beyond the analysis of crime The gendering of social practices (Bottcher) 1. Making friends and having fun 2. Relating sexually and becoming parents 3. Surviving hardships and finding purpose Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Lives l Bottcher emphasizes practices rather than individuals while at the same time it challenges the male-female gender dichotomy often found in studies of gender and crime l Gendered patterns of behavior are not universally applicable to all males or all females Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Lives l Maher: Sexed Work is a consistent examination of the intersections of race, class, and gender in shaping women’s experiences and lives, and illustrates the strengths of feminist scholarship that moves beyond and exclusive emphasis of gender l Women lawbreakers are less like dependent and passive victims and more like active, creative decision makers who often face contradictory choices Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gendered Lives l “Doing marriage” on desistance from crime is another way to think about gendered lives l The effect of marriage on the reduction of criminal behavior for adults to be particularly robust across different samples and was significantly more favorable for men than for women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: A Gendered Theory of Offending l Steffensmeier and colleagues have made major progress in developing a middle-range explanation of the gender gap l Created a gendered paradigm arguing hat the “road contours of traditional criminological theories can explain variation in both female and male offending, but that gendered concerns mediate how criminogenic factors shape the form and frequency of offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: A Gendered Theory of Offending l There are five closely interrelated key elements of the organization of gender that increases the probability of prosocial response by females and antisocial by males: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gender norms and focal concerns Moral development and affiliative concerns Social control Physical strength and aggression Sexuality Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: A Gendered Theory of Offending l The five factors influence the circumstances and nature of crime or “the context of offending” l Crime groups are an example of these five factors l l Often male dominated High stratified Females have limited opportunity Often engage in supportive activities Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gender Gap – Further Comments l The gender gap issue centers on: l l l Whether females are actually underrepresented in official data How females enter into crime What sorts of crime females commit compared to males Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gender Gap – Further Comments l Earliest feminist work studied what happened to girls in the justice system l Intense focus on policing young girls’ sexuality and violation of gender norms l l l Still see this today Gender matters at sentencing with girls receiving harsher sentences The gender gap in arrests have been declining for 30 years Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Gendered Criminology: Gender Gap – Further Comments l l l For females, economic hardship is a good predictor of criminal behavior Women’s involvement in corporate crime is rare and often they play minor roles in the crime if they do commit it A greater percentage of females than males is incarcerated for property offenses and drug offenses Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Postmodernist Feminism and the Third Wave l Postmodern feminism seeks to deconstruct the racial, class, and gender stratification that has resulted from modern Western civilization (See Table 10. 1) l Postmodern feminism is also concerned with the constructed image of crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Postmodernist Feminism and the Third Wave l The third wave’s distinguishing feature is the tactical approach it offers to some of the impasses that developed within feminist theory in the 1980 s (See Table 10. 1) l Argues that there is a wide array of discursive locations for women l Emphasizes an inclusive and nonjudgmental approach that does not police or maintain the political boundaries that the second wave employed Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives l Greater attention has been given to women as victims and survivors of sexual and physical violence l l This topic has become central to the feminist perspective in conventional criminology and to left realism The victimization of women and girls can be tied to a number of feminist perspectives Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives l The linkage between patriarchy and power forced scholars and activists to examine crimes exclusively against women l The whole milieu of the women’s movement affected criminology l More women and feminists moved into criminology and other academic disciplines Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives l There are multiple feminist perspectives in criminology l Feminism has had enough of an impact to transform criminology/criminal justice education so that gender is a central organizing theme l l However, still at the margins of the male-stream The goal of feminism is not to push men out so as to bring women in, but rather to gender the study of crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives l Feminist perspective seen in public social policies: l Mandatory arrest for domestic violence l Changes in rape laws l New attention given to date rape l Rape shield laws Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of Feminist Criminology for Corrections l There are several problems facing correctional systems for women l Women bring different needs to the prison system l l l A number of women enter prison pregnant or have dependent children Inadequate gynecological services The staff is predominantly male Stereotypical vocational programs Rehabilitation tends to be more restricted for women Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of Feminist Criminology: New Directions l Forty years ago the role of women experienced major social changes and worldwide attention l Calls for transformative feminist criminology that 1. theorizes gender, 2. contains a commitment to a broader social justice, and 3. is global in scope Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of Feminist Criminology: New Directions l Other critical perspectives in the field do not explicitly include gender issues at the center of theory and research, the transformative feminist perspective does l Also seeks to raise awareness of how the corporate media “often misrepresents the majority of women who break the law and hides the circumstances of women who act with violence” Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Consequences of Feminist Criminology: New Directions l The transformative feminist perspective examines globally sexual harassment, intimate partner violence, women’s health, maternity leave, and work-family conflict Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications

Conclusion l Feminist scholars have succeeded in “gendering criminology” in important ways l An important challenge will be to determine how criminality is affected not only by gender differences but also by gender similarities l There is a growing body of evidence that many risk factors for crime are similar for males and females, though they may express themselves in social relationships in different ways Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications