Cost Behavior Analysis and Use Chapter 3 2012

Cost Behavior: Analysis and Use Chapter 3 © 2012 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia)

Learning Objective 1 Understand how fixed and variable costs behave and how to use them to predict costs. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 2

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable A variable cost is a cost whose total dollar amount varies in direct proportion to changes in the activity level. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 3

The Activity Base (also called a cost driver) Machine hours Units produced A measure of what causes the incurrence of a variable cost Miles driven Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Labor hours Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 4

True Variable Cost – An Example Total Overage Charges on Cell Phone Bill As an example of an activity base, consider overage charges on a cell phone bill. The activity base is the number of minutes used above the allowed minutes in the calling plan. Minutes Talked Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 5

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Variable costs remain constant if expressed on a per unit basis. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 6

Variable Cost Per Unit – An Example Per Minute Overage Charge Referring to the cell phone example, the cost per overage minute is constant, for example 45 cents per overage minute. Minutes Talked Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 7

Extent of Variable Costs The proportion of variable costs differs across organizations. For example. . . A public utility like Florida Power and Light, with large investments in equipment, will tend to have fewer variable costs. Some service companies have high variable costs, while other service companies have high fixed costs. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin A manufacturing company like Black and Decker will often have many variable costs. A merchandising company like Wal-Mart usually has a high proportion of variable costs, like cost of sales. Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 8

Examples of Variable Costs 1. Merchandising companies – cost of goods sold. 2. Manufacturing companies – direct materials, direct labor, and variable overhead. 3. Merchandising and manufacturing companies – commissions, shipping costs, and clerical costs such as invoicing. 4. Service companies – supplies, travel, and clerical. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 9

True Variable Costs Cost The amount of a true variable cost used during the period varies in direct proportion to the activity level. The overage charge on a cell phone bill was one example of a true variable cost. Volume Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Direct material is another example of a cost that behaves in a true variable pattern. Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 10

Step-Variable Costs Cost A step-variable cost is a resource that is obtainable only in large chunks (such as maintenance workers) and whose costs change only in response to fairly wide changes in activity. Volume Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 11

Step-Variable Costs Cost Small changes in the level of production are not likely to have any effect on the number of maintenance workers employed. Volume Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 12

Step-Variable Costs Cost Only fairly wide changes in the activity level will cause a change in the number of maintenance workers employed. Volume Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 13

The Linearity Assumption and the Relevant Range Total Cost Economist’s Curvilinear Cost Function Relevant Range A straight line closely approximates a curvilinear variable cost line within the relevant range. Accountant’s Straight-Line Approximation (constant unit variable cost) Activity Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 14

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed A fixed cost is a cost whose total dollar amount remains constant as the activity level changes. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 15

Total Fixed Cost – An Example Monthly Basic Cell Phone Bill For example, your cell phone bill probably includes a fixed amount related to the total minutes allowed in your calling plan. The amount does not change when you use more or less allowed minutes. Number of Minutes Used within Monthly Plan Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 16

Types of Cost Behavior Patterns – Fixed Average fixed costs per unit decrease as the activity level increases. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 17

Fixed Cost Per Unit Example Cost Per Cell Phone Call For example, the fixed cost per minute used decreases as more allowed minutes are used. Number of Minutes Used within Monthly Plan Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 18

Types of Fixed Costs Committed Discretionary Long-term, cannot be significantly reduced in the short term. May be altered in the short-term by current managerial decisions Examples Depreciation on Buildings and Equipment and Real Estate Taxes Advertising and Research and Development Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 19

The Trend Toward Fixed Costs The trend in many industries is toward greater fixed costs relative to variable costs. As machines take over many mundane tasks previously performed by humans, “knowledge workers” are demanded for their minds rather than their muscles. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Knowledge workers tend to be salaried, highly-trained and difficult to replace. The cost of compensating these valued employees is relatively fixed rather than variable. 1 Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 20

Is Labor a Variable or a Fixed Cost? The behavior of wage and salary costs can differ across countries, depending on labor regulations, labor contracts, and custom. In France, Germany, China, and Japan, management has little flexibility in adjusting the size of the labor force. Labor costs are more fixed in nature. In the United States and the United Kingdom, management has greater latitude. Labor costs are more variable in nature. Within countries managers can view labor costs differently depending upon their strategy. Most companies in the United States continue to view direct labor as a variable cost. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 21

Rent Cost in Thousands of Dollars Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin 90 Relevant 60 Range 30 0 0 The relevant range of activity for a fixed cost is the range of activity over which the graph of the cost is flat. 1, 000 2, 000 3, 000 Rented Area (Square Feet) Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 22

Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range For example, assume office space is available at a rental rate of $30, 000 per year in increments of 1, 000 square feet. Fixed costs would increase in a step fashion at a rate of $30, 000 for each additional 1, 000 square feet. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 23

Fixed Costs and the Relevant Range How does this step -function pattern differ from a stepvariable cost? Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Step-variable costs can be adjusted more quickly as conditions change and. . . The width of the activity steps is much wider for the fixed cost. Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 24

Quick Check Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true? a. b. c. d. Fixed costs per unit vary with the level of activity. Variable costs per unit are constant within the relevant range. Total fixed costs are constant within the relevant range. Total variable costs are constant within the relevant range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 25

Quick Check Which of the following statements about cost behavior are true? a. Fixed costs per unit vary with the level of activity. b. Variable costs per unit are constant within the relevant range. c. Total fixed costs are constant within the relevant range. d. Total variable costs are constant within the relevant range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 26

Mixed Costs (also called semivariable costs) A mixed cost contains both variable and fixed elements. Consider the example of utility cost. Total Utility Cost Y l a t o ed x i m t s o c T Variable Cost per KW Activity (Kilowatt Hours) Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin X Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Fixed Monthly Utility Charge Slide 27

Mixed Costs Total Utility Cost Y l a t o ed x i m t s o c T Variable Cost per KW Activity (Kilowatt Hours) Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin X Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Fixed Monthly Utility Charge Slide 28

Mixed Costs – An Example If your fixed monthly utility charge is $40, your variable cost is $0. 03 per kilowatt hour, and your monthly activity level is 2, 000 kilowatt hours, what is the amount of your utility bill? Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 29

Analysis of Mixed Costs Account Analysis and the Engineering Approach In account analysis, each account is classified as either variable or fixed based on the analyst’s knowledge of how the account behaves. The engineering approach classifies costs based upon an industrial engineer’s evaluation of production methods, and material, labor and overhead requirements. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 30

Why and how to reduce fixed costs or switch them to variable costs? Typical fixed costs: production facilities, rentals, employees salaries and related benefits and utilities Converting them into variable may reduce risk of financial commitment and provide flexibility of capacity utilisation Outsourcing Business with fast and regular change and/or large varieties of products most likely will benefit from this approach e. g. Nike and Apple Non-core business functions with lower value-add to majority customers e. g. call centers for enquiries, 3 rd party logistics, brokerdealers’ securities back office operations Offshoring Honda and Toyota Thailand plants HSBC back office functions in China Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 31

Learning Objective 2 Use a scattergraph plot to diagnose cost behavior. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 32

The Scattergraph Method Plot the data points on a graph (Total Cost Y vs. Activity X). Maintenance Cost 1, 000’s of Dollars Y 20 * * 10 0 * ** 0 1 2 3 4 X Patient-days in 1, 000’s Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 33

The Scattergraph Method Draw a line through the data points with about an equal numbers of points above and below the line. Maintenance Cost 1, 000’s of Dollars Y 20 * * 10 0 * ** 0 1 2 3 4 X Patient-days in 1, 000’s Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 34

The Scattergraph Method Maintenance Cost 1, 000’s of Dollars Use one data point to estimate the total level of activity and the total cost. Y Total maintenance cost = $11, 000 20 * ** * * 10 Intercept = Fixed cost: $10, 000 0 0 1 Patient days = 800 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin 2 3 4 X Patient-days in 1, 000’s Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 35

The Scattergraph Method Make a quick estimate of variable cost per unit and determine the cost equation. Variable cost per unit = $1, 000 800 = $1. 25/patient-day Y = $10, 000 + $1. 25 X Number of patient days Total maintenance cost Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 36

Learning Objective 3 Analyze a mixed cost using the high-low method. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 37

The High-Low Method – An Example Assume the following hours of maintenance work and the total maintenance costs for six months. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 38

The High-Low Method – An Example The variable cost per hour of maintenance is equal to the change in cost divided by the change in hours. $2, 400 = $6. 00/hour 400 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 39

The High-Low Method – An Example Total Fixed Cost = Total Cost – Total Variable Cost Total Fixed Cost = $9, 800 – ($6/hour × 850 hours) Total Fixed Cost = $9, 800 – $5, 100 Total Fixed Cost = $4, 700 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 40

The High-Low Method – An Example The Cost Equation for Maintenance Y = $4, 700 + $6. 00 X Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 41

Quick Check Sales salaries and commissions are $10, 000 when 80, 000 units are sold, and $14, 000 when 120, 000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the variable portion of sales salaries and commission? a. $0. 08 per unit b. $0. 10 per unit c. $0. 12 per unit d. $0. 125 per unit Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 42

Quick Check Sales salaries and commissions are $10, 000 when 80, 000 units are sold, and $14, 000 when 120, 000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the variable portion of sales salaries and commission? a. $0. 08 per unit b. $0. 10 per unit c. $0. 12 per unit d. $0. 125 per unit Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 43

Quick Check Sales salaries and commissions are $10, 000 when 80, 000 units are sold, and $14, 000 when 120, 000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the fixed portion of sales salaries and commissions? a. $ 2, 000 b. $ 4, 000 c. $10, 000 d. $12, 000 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 44

Quick Check Sales salaries and commissions are $10, 000 when 80, 000 units are sold, and $14, 000 when 120, 000 units are sold. Using the high-low method, what is the fixed portion of sales salaries and commissions? a. $ 2, 000 b. $ 4, 000 c. $10, 000 d. $12, 000 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 45

Least-Squares Regression Method A method used to analyze mixed costs if a scattergraph plot reveals an approximately linear relationship between the X and Y variables. This method uses all of the data points to estimate the fixed and variable cost components of a mixed cost. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin The goal of this method is to fit a straight line to the data that minimizes the sum of the squared errors. Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 46

Least-Squares Regression Method Software can be used to fit a regression line through the data points. The cost analysis objective is the same: Y = a + b. X Least-squares regression also provides a statistic, called the R 2, which is a measure of the goodness of fit of the regression line to the data points. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 47

Least-Squares Regression Method Total Cost R 2 is the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable (total cost) that is explained by variation in the independent variable (activity). Y 20 10 0 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin * *2 * ** R varies from 0% to 100%, and the higher the percentage the better. 0 1 2 3 Activity Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 4 X Slide 48

Comparing Results From the Three Methods The three methods just discussed provide slightly different estimates of the fixed and variable cost components of the mixed cost. This is to be expected because each method uses differing amounts of the data points to provide estimates. Least-squares regression provides the most accurate estimate because it uses all the data points. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 49

Learning Objective 4 Prepare an income statement using the contribution format. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 50

The Contribution Format Let’s put our knowledge of cost behavior to work by preparing a contribution format income statement. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 51

The Contribution Format The contribution margin format emphasizes cost behavior. Contribution margin covers fixed costs and provides for income. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 52

Uses of the Contribution Format The contribution income statement format is used as an internal planning and decision-making tool. We will use this approach for: 1. Cost-volume-profit analysis (Chapter 4). 2. Budgeting (Chapter 10). 3. Segmented reporting of profit data (Chapter 13). 4. Special decisions such as pricing and make-or-buy analysis (Chapter 14). Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 53

The Contribution Format Used primarily for external reporting. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Used primarily by management. Slide 54

Least-Squares Regression Computations Appendix 3 A © 2012 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia)

Learning Objective 5 Analyze a mixed cost using the least-squares regression method. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 56

Simple Regression Analysis – An Example Matrix, Inc. wants to know its average fixed cost and variable cost per unit. Using the data to the right, let’s see how to do a regression using Microsoft Excel. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 57

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example You will need three pieces of information from your regression analysis: 1. Estimated Variable Cost Per Unit (line slope) 2. Estimated Fixed Costs (line intercept) 3. Goodness of fit, or R 2 To get these three pieces information we will need to use three Excel functions. SLOPE, INTERCEPT, and RSQ Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 58

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Place your cursor in cell F 4 and press the = key. Click on the pull down menu and scroll down to “More Functions. . . ” Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 59

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Scroll down to the “Statistical”, functions. Now scroll down the statistical functions until you highlight “SLOPE” Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 60

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C 4: C 19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D 4: D 19 for the range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 61

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Here is the estimate of the slope of the line. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C 4: C 19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D 4: D 19 for the range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 62

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example With your cursor in cell F 5, press the = key and go to the pull down menu for “Special Functions. ” Select Statistical and scroll down to highlight the INTERCEPT function. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 63

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Here is the estimate of the fixed costs. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C 4: C 19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D 4: D 19 for the range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 64

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Finally, we will determine the “goodness of fit”, or R 2, by using the RSQ function. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 65

Simple Regression Using Excel – An Example Here is the estimate of R 2. 1. In the Known_y’s box, enter C 4: C 19 for the range. 2. In the Known_x’s box, enter D 4: D 19 for the range. Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 66

End of Chapter 3 Mc. Graw-Hill Education (Asia) Mc. Graw-Hill/Irwin Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen Slide 67