CONTROVERSY AND CREATIVITY Joining Together Group Theory and

CONTROVERSY AND CREATIVITY Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills 11 th Edition David W. Johnson Frank P. Johnson

Chapter Eight: Objectives Understand Nature Of Controversy And Its Essential Role In Decision Making Understand Why Controversy Is Often Avoided Understand Outcomes Of Controversy Understand Process Of Controversy Understand Conditions Mediating Effectiveness Of Controversy Understand Minority Influence Understand How To Structure Controversies Understand How Controversy Relates To Citizenship Understand Nature Of Creative Problem Solving Understand How To Develop And Foster Creativity Understand Difference Between Open Vs Closed Belief Systems Understand Nature Of Brainstorming Refine Skills In Engaging In Controversies And Creative Problem Solving Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -2

Difference Of Opinion Leads To Inquiry, And Inquiry Leads To Truth Thomas Jefferson

Controversy And Decision Making Controversy: When One Person’s Ideas, Information, Conclusion, Theories, And Opinions Are Incompatible With Those Of Another, And The Two Seek To Reach An Agreement Deliberate Discourse: Discussion Of Advantages And Disadvantages Of Proposed Actions Debate: When Two Or More People Present The Best Case For Their Positions And A Judge Declares A Winner Concurrence Seeking: When Group Members Inhibit Discussion To Avoid Any Disagreement Individualistic Decision Making: When Individuals Independently Decide On A Course Of Action Without Talking To One Another Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -4

Controversy Procedure Step Prepare Present Open Discussion Perspective Reversal Synthesis Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Phrase Our Best Case Is. . . The Answer Is. . . Because. . . I Disagree Because. . . You Should Agree With Me Because. . . Your Position Is. . . Because. . . Our Best Reasoned Judgment Is. . . 8 -5

Theory Of Constructive Controversy • Conflict among group members as to which course of action to take in controversy may be structured along a continuum • At one end of the continuum is constructive controversy and at the other end is concurrence seeking • Each way of structuring conflict in decision making situations leads to a different process of interaction among group members Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -6

Theoretical Roots Developmental Theories: Piaget, Kohlberg, Hunt Cognitive Theories: Berlyne, Hammond Social Psychological Theories: Maier, Janis Controversy Theory: Johnson, Tjosvold Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -7

Meta-Analysis Of Academic Controversy Studies: Mean Effect Sizes Dependent Variables Controversy / Concurrence Seeking Controversy / Debate Controversy / Individualistic Efforts Achievement 0. 68 0. 40 0. 87 Cog Reasoning 0. 62 1. 35 0. 90 Perspective Taking 0. 91 0. 22 0. 86 Motivation 0. 75 0. 45 0. 71 Attitudes Task 0. 58 0. 81 0. 64 Liking For Others 0. 24 0. 72 0. 81 Social Support 0. 32 0. 92 1. 52 Self-Esteem 0. 39 0. 51 0. 85 Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -8

Process Of Controversy Organizing Information And Deriving Conclusions Presenting And Advocating Positions Uncertainty Created By Being Challenged By Opposing Views Epistemic Curiosity And Perspective Taking Reconceptualization, Synthesis, Integration Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -9

Have You Learned Lessons Only Of Those Who Admired You, And Were Tender With You, And Stood Aside For You? Have You Not Learned Great Lessons From Those Who Braced Themselves Against You, And Disputed The Passage With You? Walt Whitman, 1860 Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -10

Process Of Controversy Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -11

Mediating Conditions Cooperative Goal Structure Skilled Disagreement • Disagreeing With Other’s Ideas While Confirming Other’s Competence • Perspective-Taking • Differentiating Before Seeking An Integration Rational Argumentation Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -12

Minority Influence Occurs When Group Members Who Are In The Opinion Minority Persuade Members In The Opinion Majority To Change Their Opinion And Agree With The Minority Opinion Minorities Are Most Persuasive When: • They Remain Steady In Their Views • They Once Held The Majority Position • They Are Willing To Compromise • They Have Support From Others • They Present Their Views As Compatible With Majority View • Group Members Want To Make An Accurate Decision Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -13

Structuring Constructive Controversies Propose Several Courses Of Action Form Advocacy Teams Engage In Controversy Procedure • Research Position And Prepare Persuasive Presentation • Presentations • Open Discussion: Advocacy, Refutation, Rebuttal • Perspective Reversal • Drop Advocacy, Make Best Reasoned Judgment About Issue • Process How Effectively Procedure Was Followed Implement The Decision Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -14

Citizen In A Democracy Every Citizen Has The Opportunity To: • Advocate His Or Her Ideas • Challenge And Criticize Others’ Ideas Vote Is Taken, Majority Rules Minority Willingly Commits To Implementing Decision Because: • They Received A Fair And Complete Hearing And Had The Opportunity To Persuade Others • They Will Have Another Change To Advocate Their Views In Two Or Four Years • They Are Confident Their Rights Will Be Protected Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -15

Developing Creativity Reaffirm Cooperative Goal Of Making Best Decision Possible Promote Controversy Among Different Opinions And Perspectives Set Aside Time For Reflection Meet To Make Final Decision Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -16

Creativity Procedures David & Houtman (1968) • Part Changing • Checkerboard Figure • Checklist • Finding Something Similar Gordon (1961) • Personal Analogy: How It Feels To Be Part Of Issue • Direct Analogy: Think Of Parallel Situation • Compressed Conflict: Seeing Issue From Multiple Perspectives Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -17

Open Vs. Closed Belief Systems Creative Problem Solving Requires Open-Mindedness Open Minded Individuals Are Willing To Attend To, Comprehend, And Gain Insight Into Information, Ideas, Perspectives, Beliefs Different From Their Own. Dogmatism: Relatively Closed Organization Of Beliefs About Absolute Authority That Provides Framework For Intolerance Toward Others Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -18

Closed-Minded Individuals Less Able To Learn New Beliefs Or Change Old Beliefs Less Able To Organize New Beliefs Into Existing Cognitive Structures During Problem Solving Less Accepting Of Belief-Discrepant Information More Resistant To Changing Beliefs More Frequently Reject Information Threatening Their Beliefs Have Less Recall Of Contrary Information Evaluate Consistent Information More Positively Tend To Evaluate Information On Basis Of Who Said It Less Able To Resolve Conflicts (See Compromise As Defeat) Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -19

Brainstorming Invented To: • Encourage Divergent Thinking • Produce Many Different Ideas In Short Period Of Time • Ensure All Members Participate Fully Brainstorming Procedure Aimed At Producing As Many Ideas As Possibly While Withholding Criticism, Evaluation Ground Rules For Brainstorming: • No Criticism Or Evaluation • Expect Wild Ideas • Only Quantity Of Ideas Counts, Not Quality • Build On Other’s Ideas • Focus On Single Issue • Promote Congenial, Relaxed, Cooperative Atmosphere • All Members Have To Contribute • Record All Ideas Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -20

Making Brainstorming Work Most Research Suggests That It Is Less Effective Than Having Members Work Individualistically To Generate Ideas Primary Reason Is Production Blocking, Norm That Only One Person Should Speak At A Time Focus On Retrieving Relevant Information From Long-Term Memory • Members Tend To Generate Ideas From Same Category • Priming Is Presenting Brainstormers With Ideas From Low-Accessible Categories Creative Groups May Be Easier To Create Than Creative Individuals Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -21

Major Points Controversy Is Essential For Effective Decision Making Many Groups Avoid Controversies There Are Multiple Positive Outcomes Of Controversy Process Of Controversy Involves Creating Uncertainty Which Leads To Epistemic Curiosity There Are Conditions That Mediate The Effectiveness Of Controversy Minority Influence Depends On And Enriches Controversy Controversies May Be Structured Certain Democratic Citizenship Skills Depend On Controversy Creative Problem Solving Depends On Controversy There Are Ways To Develop And Foster Creativity Requires An Open (Vs Closed) Mind Brainstorming Works When There Is Priming Johnson. Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 11 e. © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 8 -22

He That Wrestles With Us Strengthens Our Nerves, And Sharpens Our Skill. Our Antagonist Is Our Helper Edmund Burke