Conducted by Kyle Ross and Mykael Livermore Method

Conducted by Kyle Ross and Mykael Livermore

Method Our method will be to use trusted sources e. g reliable internet sources, books, asking experts on the topic, etc. We will be writing what we have found out weekly using a sentence-like note-taking method. We are showing the information through a scope that anyone can understand by giving relations to everyday things e. g. telephone lines. Once we have written our notes down we will start to compare and contrast our written notes then start to write them down into a science fair project format.

Introduction We wanted to start this project to inform others of the accurate process of how vaccines immunize you from a particular pathogen. Asking this question to ourselves while studying we found out that there are many different cells involved in creating immunity inside of your immune system. Some of them include helper T cells, Killer T cells, and naïve B cells. We also found out while researching that there are different types of vaccines, these include recombinant vector, inactivated, toxoid, and DNA vaccines. All of these vaccines do different things with the same goal “Immunizing people!”

Research Vaccines create immunization inside of your immune system by sending antigen-presenting cells (APC) to search for the vaccine within your body. Once the APC finds the vaccine it will break it down and collect the antigen, displaying it on its surface. The APC with the antigen will then go to an area with a large cluster of immune cells to show other cells the antigen. For a naïve T cell to become a T helper cell it needs to interact with an antigen. The activated T helper cell alerts other cells about the antigen roaming around in the body. When a naïve B cell interacts with an antigen it becomes activated, once a naïve B cell is activated it can use cell division (Cloning) and make more naïve B cells specific to the antigen that will either become a plasma B cell or a memory B cell. After a B cell grows into an antigen-specific plasma B cell, the plasma B cell will produce antibodies specific to the found antigen. The produced antibodies will attach themselves to the vaccine antigen in the body, this makes the antigen not able to break into cells or marks the antigen for killing. If the vaccine is an attenuated virus then the vaccine antigens will enter cells and infect them, killer T cells will look for the infected cells and kill them. Naïve killer T cells need to interact with an APC with an antigen to activate into a killer T cell. There are 3 types of memory cells: Memory Killer T cells, remember how to fight the specific antigen that activated them. Memory B cells remember how to produce antibodies tailored to that specific antigen. Memory helper T cells remember how to alert other cells to get them to do their job made for the specific antigen.

Data

Types Of Vaccines There are 7 different types of vaccines. Subunit and Conjugate are the two main divisions and the other 5 are all different subdivisions. 1. Subunit Vaccines - Subunit vaccines contain the virus antigen that teaches your immune system how to fight the real pathogen through many different cell responses. 2. Conjugate Vaccines - Conjugate vaccines are mostly made for younger children and people with weaker immune systems. This vaccine is made by coating the virus antigen in a sugar-like coating that is safer for the weaker immune system. 3. Live Attenuated Vaccines - Live attenuated vaccines are made to immunize against viruses and bacteria. These vaccines contain a weakened version of the virus/bacteria that the immune system is supposed to fight up against. 4. Inactivated Vaccine - Inactivated vaccines immunize against viruses and bacteria. These vaccines contain antigens that have been killed by heat or chemicals. When the dead antigen enters your body, your body studies it to learn how to fight the alive versions. 5. Toxoid Vaccines - Toxoid vaccines help immunize you from bacteria-born diseases that produce toxins. This vaccine works by killing and weakening the produced toxins so that your body’s cells can get through and have enough energy to fight the main producer. 6. DNA Vaccines - DNA vaccines work by injecting a small amount of the virus’s DNA into your immune system. Your body can closely study it because it is DNA. Your body does not need a booster vaccine afterwards. 7. Recombinant Vector Vaccines - Recombinant vector vaccines inject a small strand of the virus’s DNA into your immune system, this version of the DNA is weakened, unlike the DNA vaccine counterpart. The special thing about recombinant vector vaccines is that because the DNA is weaker they coat it in a second stronger antigen and the result is your body being immune to both of the diseases. New Covid-19 Vaccine: Due to recent events, scientists have been creating a Covid-19 vaccine, this vaccine is a new type entirely called m. RNA Vaccines - m. RNA vaccines immunize against Covid-19 without using a live virus. The vaccine teaches our immune system’s cells how to make a protein that will trigger the production of antibodies. The special thing about this vaccine is that it does not use the virus in any way.

Common Ingredients In Vaccines ■ ■ ■ ■ Preservatives - Preservatives prevent the vaccine inside of the vial from contamination after it is opened. An example of this is gelatin and thimerosal (ethylmercury). Stabilizers - Stabilizers prevent the vaccine from sticking to the vial that it is inside of, it also prevents unwanted chemical reactions from happening. Two common stabilizers are gelatin and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Surfactants - Surfactants prevent the vaccine from setting. In other words, they keep the vaccine mixed. Diluent - Diluents are a liquid used to dilute vaccines to the right viscosity (texture) before being injected into a person. The most common diluent is sterile water. Adjuvant - Adjuvants are a chemical that improves the response of the immune system to the vaccine. They either keep the vaccine at the injection site so that it is easier to find or they alert more cells. A common adjuvant is aluminum chemicals. Residual antibiotics - Residual antibiotics prevent contamination during the manufacturing process. Some residual antibiotics include neomycin. Residual inactivating ingredients - Kill or inactivate viruses during the manufacturing process. An example of this is formaldehyde. Residual cell culture materials - Grows enough of the virus or bacteria to make enough for the vaccine. An example is egg protein.

Stages Of Production In A Vaccine Production - To make a vaccine scientists first need to deconstruct the virus’s genetic code. Once the code is deconstructed the scientists will make the vaccine. Phase 1 - The made vaccine is then given to a small number of volunteers to see if it is safe. If the scientists see the wanted immune response they will move on to phase two but if they don’t they have to restart. Phase 2 - The vaccine that has surpassed phase one is then given to several hundred volunteers. The scientists will try to look for as many different people as possible (e. g. Age, Body, Living style, etc. ) to see if it is safe for a larger group. If not they restart. If they do find the wanted response then they move to phase 3. Phase 3 - In phase three the vaccine is given to thousands of different volunteers (Again they try to look for many different types of people). Scientists will give half of the volunteers a fake vaccine and the other half the real one (This is called blinding). If the real and fake vaccine shows the same response then the real one does not work. If the vaccine proves to work and is safe then it will move on to publication. If the vaccine does not show safety and does not work the scientists have to restart. Publication - The publication stage is when the vaccine is released to the general public. The most common vaccine we find today is the Flu vaccine, you can find it in pharmacies at the supermarket.

Myth-Busting 1. Vaccines Cause Autism - In 1997 a British surgeon named Andrew Wakefield wrote an article in The Lancet a medical journal, which suggests that mumps, measles and rubella vaccines increased autism in children. The article was removed from the journal because multiple studies led on this topic all finding no evidence to support vaccines increasing the likeness of developing autism. 1. Natural Immunity Is Better - When catching a disease it does result in stronger immunity but you have a higher risk of dying, so it’s much safer just to get the vaccine. 1. Vaccines Can Infect You With The Disease - Vaccines can cause small symptoms of the disease but many people think that this is a sign of infection. Most of the time the body is just experiencing a fall in energy because it is hard at work internally. In the 60 s the oral polio vaccine was developed poorly and did cause infection, ever since then doctors and health officials have made high-quality vaccines by having tighter restrictions on what can be given to the public so that it doesn’t happen again.

Vaccine Skepticism Wealthy People Many wealthy individuals are opposed to vaccines because they do not need to worry about the disease itself. Since wealthy people have large sums of excess money they can afford amazing healthcare, diets, and lifestyles. Rich people also don't need to use crowded public transports which lowers the risk of disease. These people have a harder time catching the disease because of all these luxuries which cause them to not feel the need for vaccination. Misinformation A lot of people believe that vaccines are “Fake” or that they implant microchips into you. Even if the vaccines implanted microchips into you, you have google maps on your phone which would enable people to track you if needed. The people that believe vaccines are fake and mostly do not know the science behind them, to make a informed decision they need to study and read about the topic they are arguing. Events from the past/Racism In 1934 there was a study conducted called the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. In this study white scientists came across african-american people that had syphilis and promised them free healthcare. After the fact when the scientists were able to cure them they instead decided to keep them hostage and see how syphilis affects the individuals the longer they had it. This can cause people to be scared of vaccines because of the past events.

Dictionary Pathogen: A pathogen is a fungus, bacteria, or virus which can cause disease. Antibodies: An antibody is a protein produced to counter a specific antigen. Antigen: An antigen is a foreign substance that triggers an immune response typically in the production of antibodies. T cell: A cell produced in the bone marrow that moves to the thymus. B cell: A cell produced in the bone marrow. Naive T cell: A T cell that has not been activated Naive B cell: A B cell that has not been activated. Helper T cell: A cell that helps activities cell by alerting them of the antigen. Memory cells: A type of cell which remembers the roles in which the different cells do. Plasma B cell: A cell that produces antibodies specific to the antigen. Killer T cell: A cell that kills and digests infected cells. Antigen-Presenting cell: A cell that travels through the body searching for the vaccine, specifically the antigen in the vaccine. Immunization: The process of making something immune to a disease. Vaccine: A substance that enters the body and causes immunity to a specified disease. Activated Cell: An activated cell is a cell that has interacted with an antigen. Blinding: Blinding is when scientists give half of the volunteers a fake vaccine and the other half the real one. Scientists use this method in the three different phases of producing a vaccine. Cell Division: Cell division is when a cell divides itself equally and makes a clone. Mainly Activated Naive B cells use this so that the body can produce more plasma and memory cells.

Conclusion In conclusion, we learned that vaccines create immunity in your body by sending antigen-presenting cells to search for the vaccine antigen. An antigen is a cell that covers a pathogen, antigens trigger immune responses which is why it is needed in vaccines. Once found a cell called helper T cell alerts close by immune cells that the antigen has been found. Naive B cells that have interacted with the antigen can either turn into a memory B cell that remembers the antigen and how to fight it or they can turn into a plasma B cell which is a factory for antibodies. Antibodies are the soldiers of the body. If the vaccine contains an attenuated antigen, the antigen will infect other cells. When Naive Killer T cells interact with an APC with an antigen they become killer T cells. Killer T cells consume the infected cells. Any of these Naive cells can form into a memory cell associated with their name so they can remember the processes of which the cells worked. By remembering these processes it kickstarts the body to become faster and stronger for the next time the pathogen is caught. This Information is important because lots of people in the world believe that vaccines harm your body because of the spread of false information. We also made sections on this project about the common ingredients, types of vaccines, stages of production, and myth-busting, in these areas we have talked about how in the last several years vaccines have become safer and how vaccines are not as bad as society makes them sound. All that vaccines do is speed up your immune response to a specific pathogen. There is an extremely small chance of being harmed from vaccines, the odds of this are way lower than getting the disease with no vaccine. With all of this information, we hope others will continue vaccination or start vaccination to make a jump to creating a healthier world.

Acknowledgments Mykael's Dad helped Mykael by reading over the written paragraphs and telling us that it may be a good idea to show what diseases have been cured due to vaccines and what the reason for debates about vaccines are. Mykael explained to his mom the different processes of immunization cells and she asked questions that I didn't know the answer to which encouraged me to research more. Kyle's Dad gave us the idea of making graphs and charts for the information we have collected so far. Kyle's Step-Dad corrected some of our information on how the cells work when creating immunity from a vaccine. Mr. Downey guided us in the right direction and on track with this project by having scheduled meetings regularly. We would like to say a massive thank you to everyone who helped and guided us with this project, we appreciate it a lot!

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