Computer Networks Section 1 Routing Algorithms and Network

Computer Networks Section 1. Routing Algorithms and Network Layer Protocol Presenter: Shu-Ping Lin

Outline • Routing Algorithms • The Network Layer in The Internet

Outline • Routing Algorithms • The Network Layer in The Internet

Store-and-Forward Packet Switching

Routing Algorithm • Routing algorithm – Datagram – Virtual circuit • Differences between routing and forwarding • Routing versus forwarding

Routing Algorithm (cont’d) • Requirement of routing algorithm – Correctness and Simplicity – Robustness – Stability – Fairness – Optimality

Datagram Routing

Virtual-Circuit Routing

Comparison

Routing Algorithm (cont’d) • Nonadaptive (static routing) – Do not base routing decisions on measurement of the current traffic and topology. – The route used to get from node to node is computed in advance. • Adaptive (dynamic routing) – Change routing decisions to reflect changes in topology and traffic.

Optimality Principle • If router J is on the optimal path from router I to router K, the optimal path from J to K also falls along the same route. • Sink tree – The set of optimal routes from all sources to a given destination • The goal of all routing algorithms is to discover and use the sink trees for all routers.

Sink Tree

Shortest Path Routing • Link metric • Dijkstra algorithm

Flooding • Every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing link except the one it arrived on. • Termination of flooding process – Hop counter – Record of packet which has been flooded • Applications of flooding – Military application – Comparison

Distance Vector Routing • Each router maintains a table giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to be used. • Tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors. • Items in the table – Preferred outgoing line – Estimate of the distance to that distance

Distance Vector Routing (cont’d)

Distance Vector Routing (cont’d) • Converge to the correct answer, but do so slowly. • It reacts rapidly to good news, but leisurely to bad news. • The count-to-infinity problem

Count-to-Infinity Problem

Problem of DVR • Does not take line bandwidth into account. • Take too long to converge.

Link State Routing • Learning about the neighbors – Sending a special HELLO packet on each pointto-point line • Measuring line cost to each of its neighbors – Round-trip time – Traffic load – Line bandwidth

Link State Routing (cont’d) • Building link state packet

Link State Routing (cont’d) • Distributing the link state packets – Flooding is used to distribute the link state packet. – Each packet contains a sequence number that is incremented for each new packet sent. • Computing the new routes – Dijkstra’s algorithm can be run locally to construct the shortest path to all destinations.

Hierarchical Routing • As networks grow in size, the router routing tables grow proportionally. • Each router has responsible for its region and knows nothing about the internal structure of other router.

Hierarchical Routing (cont’d)

Hierarchical Routing (cont’d) • Penalty of increased path length • The optimal number of levels for an N router subnets is ln N.

Broadcasting Routing • The source simply send a distinct packet to each destination. – Waste bandwidth – Have to know complete list of all destinations • Flooding – Generate too many packets – Consume too much bandwidth

Broadcasting Routing (cont’d) • Multidestination routing – Each packet contains a list of destinations. – The destination set is partitioned among the output lines. • Using spanning tree – Routers must know which of its lines belong to the spanning tree in advance. – Copy an incoming packet onto all the spanning lines except the on it arrived on.

Broadcasting Routing (cont’d) • Reverse path forwarding – Router checks to see if the packet arrived on the line that is normally used for sending packets to the source of the broadcast.

Multicast Routing • Each router computes a spanning tree covering all other routers. • When a process sends a multicast packet to a group – Examining the spanning tree of this group – Removing all lines that do not lead to hosts that are members of group

Multicast Routing (cont’d)

Multicast Routing (cont’d) • Pruning spanning tree – Reverse path forwarding – Router with no hosts interested in a particular group sends a PRUNE message. – The subnet is recursively pruned.

Multicast Routing (cont’d) • Disadvantage of algorithm, suppose that network has n groups, each with an average of m members. – For each group, m pruned spanning trees must be stored – Total of mn trees • Core-based tree – A host wanting to multicast sends packets to the core, which does the multicast along the spanning tree.

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Routing for Mobile Hosts (cont’d) • Mobile host – Migratory hosts – Roaming hosts • All hosts are assumed to have a permanent home location that never changes. • Hosts also have a permanent home address that can be used to determine their home location.

Routing for Mobile Hosts (cont’d) • Each area has a home agent which keeps track of hosts whose home is in the area, but who are currently visiting another area. • Each area has foreign agent which keeps track of all mobile hosts visiting this area.

Routing for Mobile Hosts (cont’d) • Registration procedure – Foreign agent searching – Registration – Foreign agent contacts the mobile host’s home agent. – Verification of mobile host’s home agent – Acknowledgement from the mobile host’s home agent

Routing for Mobile Hosts (cont’d) • Tunneling • Encapsulate the original packet in the payload field of an outer packet and sends the latter to the foreign agent.

Routing for Mobile Hosts (cont’d)

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks • AODV (Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector) – Distant relative of the Bellman-Ford distance vector algorithm – Considering the limited bandwidth and low battery life – On-demand algorithm

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d) • AODV algorithm maintains a table at each node, keyed by destination and which neighbor to send packets in order to reach destination. • Route request packet

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d) • When a route request packet arrives at a node – The (Source address, request ID) pair is looked up in a local history table too see if this request has already been seen and processed. – Receiver looks up the destination in its route table. – If receiver does not know a fresh route to the destination, it increments the Hop count field and rebroadcast the REQUEST packet.

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d)

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d) • Destination constructs a ROUTE REPLY packet which follows the reverse path to source. • Each intermediate node enters this packet into local routing table when – No route to destination is known. – Sequence number for destination in REPLY is greater than the value in the routing table. – Sequence number is equal but the new route is shorter.

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d) • Problem of mobility • Route maintenance – Periodically, each node broadcasts a Hello message. – If no response is returned, router prune this link. • Active neighbor

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d)

Routing in Ad Hoc Networks (cont’d) • Critical difference between AODV and DVR – Nodes do not send out periodic broadcasts containing their entire routing table.

Node Lookup in Peer-to-Peer Networks • One of p 2 p routing algorithm—Chord • Each user node has an IP address that can be hashed to an m-bit number call node identifier. • Successor (k) is the node identifier of the first actual node following k around the circle clockwise.

Node Lookup in Peer-to-Peer Networks (cont’d) • Finger table – Start field = k +2 i (modulo 2 m) – If key falls between k and successort (k), then the node holding information about key is successor (k). – Otherwise, the entry whose start field is the closest predecessor of key is tried.

Node Lookup in Peer-to-Peer Networks (cont’d)

Node Lookup in Peer-to-Peer Networks (cont’d) • Node r joining – New node r asks successor (r) for its predecessor. – Insert r in between successor and predecessor. – Successor should hand over those keys in the range predecessor (r)-r, which now belong to r. • Every node runs a background process that periodically recomputes each finger by calling successor.

Outline • Routing Algorithm • The Network Layer in The Internet

The Network Layer in The Internet • Principles for network design – Make sure it works. – Keep it simple. – Make clear choices. – Exploit modularity. – Expect heterogeneity. – Avoid static options and parameters. – Look for a good design; it need not be perfect.

The Network Layer in The Internet (cont’d) – Think about scalability. – Consider performance and cost. • Network layer provides best-efforts way to transport datagrams from source to destination.

The IP Protocol • The IPv 4 header

IP Address • IP address formats

IP Address (cont’d) • Special IP address

Subnet • Split a network into several parts for internal use.

Subnet (cont’d) • Some bits are taken away from the host number to create a subnet number. • For example, a university can use a 6 -bit subnet number and a 10 -bit host number, allowing fro up to 64 subnets. • Outside the network, the subnet is not visible, so allocating a new subnet does not require contacting ICANN.

Subnet (cont’d) • Subnet mask indicates the split between network + subnet number and host.

Network Address Translation • Shortage of IP address • Within the company, every computer gets a unique IP address, which is used for routing intramural traffic. • An address translation takes place when a packet exits the company.

Network Address Translation (cont’d)

Network Address Translation (cont’d) • Use TCP port to distinguish the traffic. • TCP source port field is replaced by an index into the NAT box’s translation table. • Each entry contains original IP address and original source port.

Network Address Translation (cont’d) • Violation of the architectural model of IP – Every IP address uniquely identifies a machine. • NAT changes the Internet from a connectionless network to a kind of connection-oriented network. • Violation of protocol layering – layer k may not make any assumptions about what layer k+1 has put into the payload field.

Internet Control Protocols • Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Address Resolution Protocol • How do IP address get mapped onto data link layer addresses, such as Ethernet? • Configuration file • ARP – Broadcast a packet onto the Ethernet asking: Who owns IP address xxx. – Correspondent will reply with its Ethernet address

Address Resolution Protocol (cont’d)

Address Resolution Protocol (cont’d) • Make ARP work more efficiently – Local cache – ARP request with requestor’s Ethernet address • Transmit data to remote network.

RARP, BOOTP, and DHCP • When a computer is booted how does it get the IP address. • RARP – Broadcast a packet to ask RARP server. – Packet cannot be forwarded by routers, so RARP server is needed on each network.

RARP, BOOTP, and DHCP (cont’d) • BOOTP – Use UDP message, which are forwarded over routers. – Require manual configuration of tables mapping IP address to Ethernet address. • DHCP – Both manual IP address assignment and automatic assignment

RARP, BOOTP, and DHCP (cont’d) • DHCP

OSPF—The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol • Routing algorithm within as autonomous system (AS) is called an interior gateway protocol. • The original Internet interior gateway protocol was distance vector protocol (RIP). • Link state protocol replaced RIP in 1979. • OSPF began work in 1988.

OSPF—The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (cont’d) • Internet is made up of a large number of autonomous systems. • Each AS is operated by a different organization and can use its own routing algorithm. • Every AS has a backbone area. • All areas are connected to the backbone and can communicate each other via backbone.

OSPF—The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (cont’d)

OSPF—The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (cont’d) • Using flooding, each router informs all the other router in its area of its neighbors and costs. • This information allows each router to construct the graph for its area and compute the shortest path. • Backbone routers accept information from the area border routers in order to compute the best route from each backbone router to every other router.

BGP—The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol • All interior gateway protocol has to do is to move packets as efficiently as possible without worrying about politics. • Exterior gateway protocol routers have to worry about politics. – No transit traffic through certain ASes. – Traffic starting or ending at IBM should not transit Microsoft. • Policies are typically manually configured into each BGP router and are not part of protocol.

BGP—The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol (cont’d) • Stub networks – Has only one connection to BGP graph and cannot be used for transit traffic. • Multiconnected networks – Could be used for transit traffic, except that they refuse • Transit networks – Willing to handle third-party packet

BGP—The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol (cont’d) • Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) – Fundamentally a distance vector protocol, but each BGP router keeps track of the path used.

Internet Multicasting • IP uses class D address to support multicast. • Two kinds of group address – Permanent address – Temporary address

Internet Multicasting (cont’d) • • 224. 0. 0. 1 All systems on a LAN 224. 0. 0. 2 All routers on a LAN 224. 0. 0. 5 All OSPF routers on a LAN 224. 0. 0. 6 All designated OSPF routers on a LAN • Temporary groups must be created before they can be used.

Internet Multicasting (cont’d) • Multicasting routing is done using spanning tree. • Each multicast router exchanges information with its neighbors, using a modified distance vector protocol.

Mobile IP • Increment of portable computers. • Major goals – Mobile host must be able to use its home IP address anywhere. – Changes to software and router are not permitted. – No overhead should be incurred when a mobile host is at home.

Mobile IP (cont’d) • See section 5. 2. 9 (Routing for Mobile Hosts) • When foreign shows up at a foreign site, it contacts the foreign host there and registers. • The foreign host contacts the user’s home agent and gives it a care-of-address.

Mobile IP (cont’d) • Each foreign agent periodically broadcast its address and type of service, which called advertisement. • Registration for impolite mobile hosts that leave without saying goodbye.

IPv 6 • While NAT may buy a few more years’ time, IP in its current form (IPv 4) is numbered. • IETF issued a call for proposal and discussion in RFC 1550. • IPv 6 is not compatible with IPv 4, but it is compatible with other auxiliary Internet protocol.

IPv 6 (cont’d) • Main features – Longer addresses – Simplification of the header – Better support for options – Security – Quality of service

IPv 6 (cont’d) • The IPv 6 fixed header

IPv 6 (cont’d) • New notation of 16 -byte address – 8000: 0000: 0123: 4567: 89 AB: CDEF – 8000: : 123: 4567: 89 AB: CDEF • IPv 4 can be written as : : 192. 168. 20. 46 • Vanishment of IPv 4 headers – IHL – Protocol – Checksum

IPv 6 (cont’d) • Extension header is encoded as (Type, Length, Value) tuple. – Type is a 1 -byte field telling which option this is. – Length is a 1 -byte field telling how long the value is. – Value is any information required.

IPv 6 (cont’d) • IPv 6 extension header

IPv 6 (cont’d) • Controversies – Hop limit field length – Maximum packet size – Checksum – Mobile issue

Section 2. The Internet Transport Protocols: TCP

Introduction to TCP • Function of providing reliable end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork. • Lack of IP – No guarantee that packets will be delivered properly. – Packets may arrive in the wrong order.

TCP Service Model • TCP service is obtained by both sender and receiver creating sockets. • Each socket has IP address and a 16 -bit number called port. • Port number below 1024 are called wellknown ports and reserved for standard service.

TCP Service Model (cont’d) • Well-Known Ports

TCP Service Model (cont’d) • Characteristics of TCP connections – Full duplex – Point-to-point – Byte stream, not a message stream

TCP Service Model (cont’d) • A key feature of TCP is that every packet on a TCP connection has its own 32 -bit sequence number. • TCP segment consisting of fixed 20 -byte header is used for exchanging data between sender and receiver.

TCP Service Model (cont’d) • Segment size issue – Fit in the 65515 -byte IP paylo. ad – Can’t exceed maximum transfer unit (MTU). – MTU is generally 1500 bytes. • The basic protocol used by TCP is the sliding window protocol. – Timer – Acknowledgement number

TCP Segment Header

TCP Connection Establishment • Three-way handshake.

TCP Connection Release • To release a connection , either party can send a TCP segment with the FIN bit set. • When the FIN is acknowledged, that direction is shut down for new data. • Normally, four TCP segments are required to release a connection.

TCP Connection Management Modeling

TCP Transmission Policy

TCP Transmission Policy (cont’d) • When the window size is 0, the sender stop sending data to receiver except – Urgent data may be sent. – Send a 1 -byte segment to make the receiver reannounce the next byte expected and window size.

TCP Transmission Policy (cont’d) • Consider the worst case in performance issue. • For receivers – Delay acknowledgements and window updates for 500 msec in the hope of acquiring some data. • For senders – Nagle’s algorithm

TCP Transmission Policy (cont’d) • Silly window syndrome – Data are passed to the sending TCP entity in large blocks, but an interactive application on the receiving side reads data 1 byte at a time.

TCP Transmission Policy (cont’d) • Clark’s algorithm – It forces window update to wait until it has a decent amount of space available. • Combination of Nagle’s and Clark’s algorithm.

TCP Congestion Control • When the load offered to any network is more than it can handle, congestion builds up. • TCP achieves congestion control by dynamically manipulating the window size. • First step of congestion control: detection. • All the Internet TCP algorithms assume that timeouts are caused by congestion.

TCP Congestion Control (cont’d)

TCP Congestion Control (cont’d) • Two potential problems—network capacity and receiver capacity. • Each sender maintains two windows— receiver window and congestion window. • The number of bytes that may be sent is the minimum of the two windows.

TCP Congestion Control (cont’d) • Slow start

TCP Timer Management • Retransmission timer • Difficulties of setting retransmission timer

TCP Timer Management (cont’d) • Estimate RTT • Where is a smothing factor that determines how much weight is given to the old value. • TCP uses ßRTT to estimate retransmission timer.

TCP Timer Management (cont’d) • Jacobson proposed to use mean deviation as a cheap estimator of the standard deviation. •

TCP Timer Management (cont’d) • Potential problem – When the ack of retransmission packet comes in, it is unclear whether the ack refers to the first transmission or a later one. – Karn’s algorithm • Persistence timer is design to prevent the deadlock. • Keepalive timer.

Wireless TCP and UDP • Problem due to congestion control. • TCP assumes that timeouts are caused by congestion, not by lost packets. • A packet is lost on a wired network, the sender should slow down. • When one is lost on a wireless network, the sender should try harder.

Wireless TCP and UDP (cont’d) • Bakne and Badrinath propose indirect TCP which split the TCP connection into two separate connections.

Wireless TCP and UDP (cont’d) • The advantage of this scheme is that bothconnections are now homogeneous. • Timeouts on the first connection can slow the sender down, whereas timeouts on the second one can speed it up. z • The disadvantage of the scheme is that it violates the semantics of TCP.

Transactional TCP • Efficiency problem of TCP