Components of Fitness KEY KNOWLEDGE Healthrelated fitness components

Components of Fitness

KEY KNOWLEDGE Health-related fitness components including aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition Skill-related fitness components including muscular power, speed, agility, coordination, balance and reaction time Factors that affect each component. KEY SKILLS Using relevant technology, conduct an activity analysis to collect and interpret primary data, and so ascertain the important fitness components and energy systems used in sports and physical activities. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Fitness components Are Important in determining the energy systems which need to be trained, fitness tests to be conducted, selection of the team, identification of potential champions & skills to be trained. These are integral concepts as a team sport may only have 2 x three hour training sessions per week.

© Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Comparing different sports in terms of their fitness requirements… Copy and complete the following table: Sport Hammer throw Hockey - Golf Gymnastics Equestrian 400 m run Surfing Beach volleyball Tour de France AFL Tennis Component(s) of fitness required Justification (think about the Dominant skills/movements/intensity/durat Energy ion of the sport) System

Health related components

Aerobic capacity = The ability of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to take up and supply oxygen to the muscles to sustain exercise Factors affecting aerobic capacity VO 2 max – The higher this is, the more oxygen can be taken up, transported and utilised per kg of body weight and the greater the ability to supply ATP aerobically. Lactate inflection point (LIP) – The later this occurs during activity (increased via aerobic training), the less likelihood hydrogen ions (H+) will accumulate and affect aerobic energy production. Gender – Males have greater aerobic power than females because, amongst other factors, they have larger hearts, lungs and blood volumes. Age – VO 2 max peaks around 25– 28 years of age and then declines by 1% per year Heredity – aerobic power/ VO 2 max has a heredity estimate of 90– 95% Training – Athletes who are able to increase their stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (Q), blood volume, capillary density, lactate inflection point (LIP), arterio-venous oxygen difference (a-v. O 2 diff), and slow-twitch muscle fibre characteristics will greatly improve their aerobic capacity. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Fitness Tests: Aerobic Capacity Lab-based Test 1. VO 2 max test – on a treadmill, cycle ergometer, rower – measures the maximum volume of oxygen than can be taken in, delivered and used by the muscles per minute. What is the difference between absolute and relative VO 2 max scores? Absolute VO 2 max does not consider a person’s weight (l/min). Relative VO 2 max does (ml/kg/min). Both Bob and Frank have an absolute VO 2 max of 3. 8 L/min. Are they the same fitness level? NO! Bob weighs 105 kg – he’s a big guy. Frank weighs 60 kg – he’s a little guy. If we put their weight into the equation – then we find out that Bob has a relative VO 2 max of 36. 1 ml/kg/min and Frank has a relative VO 2 max of 53. 3 ml/kg/min. Frank is way healthier than Bob. He’s a little guy with a big aerobic capacity. Bob is a big guy with a little aerobic capacity.

Field-based Tests 1. 20 m shuttle run (beep test) 2. 1. 6 km run test 3. Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (more specific for intermittent team sports than beep) 4. Cooper’s 12 minute run What is the differences between maximal and submaximal tests? What is the differences between direct and indirect testing? What is the difference between lab and field-based tests? What are the advantages and disadvantages of lab and field-based tests? N. B. YOU MUST LEARN THE PROCEDURE FOR 2 DIFFERENT FITNESS TESTS FOR EACH FITNESS COMPONENT

Training Methods: Aerobic Capacity 1. Interval training • has periods of work followed by periods of rest, depending on the main energy system involved to make training specific: µLong Interval Primarily trains = Aerobic energy system Work : rest = 1 : 1 Intensity = 75 -85% HR max Duration = 1 4 minutes Recommended rest = 1 4 minutes (same as work period) – doesn’t have to be passive rest Commonly used for = team sports with high aerobic base; 800 m 3, 000 m track events; 100 m 800 m swimming events 2. Continuous training • involves running, cycling, swimming, etc. , non-stop for a period of time • is associated with improved cardiovascular functions (health benefit) • must be completed within the 'aerobic training zone' = 70– 85% max HR • needs to be maintained for a minimum of 20 minutes (duration).

3. Fartlek • originated in Sweden and means 'speed play' • combines continuous work (running, cycling, swimming) with bursts of speed and lower intensity activities • calls upon both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems • trains both aerobic and anaerobic fitness components • hills represent ideal terrain for Fartlek because they lend themselves to random changes in performance intensities and 'coasting/ floating' recoveries during downhill sections.

Anaerobic capacity = The ability of the body to produce energy without using oxygen and hence the efficiency/‘power’ of the two anaerobic energy systems ~ ATP–PC & anaerobic glycolysis systems. Factors affecting anaerobic capacity Age – Anaerobic power tends to peak around 30 years of age and then decline by 1% per year. It declines because the body decreases in cross sectional area of muscle fibres, resulting in decreases in fuel stores (ATP & PC & glycogen) and anaerobic enzymes. Gender – Males have greater muscle mass than females and so will also have greater stores of ‘anaerobic fuels’ (ATP & PC) and glycolytic enzymes that can break down glycogen quickly without oxygen. Lactic acid and metabolite tolerance – anaerobic training calling upon the anaerobic glycolysis system will greatly improve the muscle’s abilities to tolerate build up of H+, ADP and Pi. Fibre type – Fast-twitch fibres can generate anaerobic power quicker than slowtwitch fibres because they have greater anaerobic stores of fuels. Fibre recruitment – Anaerobic power relies upon fast-twitch fibres being activated quickly and hence many ‘intense’ impulses are sent to relevant muscle groups requiring quick activation. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Fitness Tests – Anaerobic Capacity tests can be used for two purposes: 1. Where there is a recovery period involved between repetitions, (such as in the phosphate recovery test) the test measures the ATP-PC system’s ability to replenish its high energy PC in order to dominate the next repetition. 2. In the absences of a recovery period, such as in the 300 m shuttle run, the test measures the ability of the two anaerobic systems to supply high-intensity energy over a relatively short duration. 1. Phosphate Recovery test This test challenges the body’s ability to resynthesise PC in between each repetition in the test. This test demonstrates the performance decrement over 8 x 7 s sprints on 30 s. 2. 300 m shuttle run test This test measures the ability of the two anaerobic systems to supply high-intensity energy over a short period of time. 3. Running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST) Requires the calculation of power decline over 6 x 35 m sprints, with 10 s rest in between each one.

Training Methods: Anaerobic Capacity Short Interval Primarily trains = ATP–PC & Anaerobic Glycolysis systems Work : rest = 1 : 4 or 1 : 5 Intensity = maximal Duration = 5 – 15 seconds Recommended rest = 15/20 seconds 1 minute Commonly used for = team sports involving repeated short sprints; 100 m track event; 25 m swimming events The longer the rest period, the greater the amount of PC restoration that occurs, and the more training is likely be of the ATP–PC system. Intermediate/Medium Interval Primarily trains = anaerobic system, but also some aerobic energy system benefit Work : rest = 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 Intensity = 85+ % HR max Duration = 15 seconds 1 minute Recommended rest = 45 seconds 2/3 minutes Commonly used for = team sports which have frequent burst of anaerobic efforts lasting 5– 10 seconds; 200 m 1, 500 m track events; 25 m 100 m swimming events

3. Fartlek • originated in Sweden and means 'speed play' • combines continuous work (running, cycling, swimming) with bursts of speed and lower intensity activities • calls upon both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems • trains both aerobic and anaerobic fitness components • hills represent ideal terrain for Fartlek because they lend themselves to random changes in performance intensities and 'coasting/ floating' recoveries during downhill sections.

Muscular strength = The force or tension a muscle (group) can exert against a resistance in one maximal contraction. The maximum amount of force produced in one contraction is also known as 1 RM (one repetition maximum). The contraction is often applied over a couple of seconds. Factors affecting muscle strength Age – muscular strength will tend to peak between 25– 30 years of age and then decline by 1% a year. Gender – males have greater muscle mass than females so in absolute terms will be ‘stronger’ by about 30%. The same male and female muscle types are able to produce the same strength. Speed of contraction – greatest strength can be generated with isometric contractions. As speed of contraction increases for isotonic and isokinetic contractions, the strength produced decreases. Fibre type – fast-twitch fibres can generate more strength than slow-twitch fibres because they have greater diameters and contractile proteins (the part of fibres responsible for generating tension). http: //www. coachr. org/fiber. htm Fibre arrangement/shape – multipennate muscles will be stronger than bi-pennate or unipennate muscles due to greater attachment points. Quadriceps (multipennate) are approximately three times stronger than hamstrings (unipennate and fusiform) – see picture Fibre recruitment – efforts requiring minimal strength such as picking up a hockey stick see a small number of fibres being recruited by nerve impulses. The same hockey stick used to generate greater strength in a push from a penalty corner will be activated by a greater number of fibres being recruited. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Muscle Fibres There are three different types of muscle fibres: • Slow twitch (Type I) • Fast twitch (Type IIa) • Fast twitch (Type IIb) Are Olympic 100 m champions born or made? • Everyone is born with a certain percentage of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres. What is your percentage? • Type I and Type IIb cannot be altered. Through training, their capabilities increase (through training adaptations) • Type IIb; however, can take on characteristics of type I (through aerobic) or type IIb (through anaerobic) training.

Fibre Type analysis Read article (up to ‘Recruitment of muscle fibres’) and highlight in different colours the characteristics of the three types of muscles fibres. 2. Using sporting examples, explain how the structure of the three types of muscle fibres are designed for their function 1. i. e. don’t just state the differences in their characteristics, but explain why their characteristics enable them to perform their function. Identify what energy systems/types of events each fibre type is designed for.

Fusiform: designed for speed of contraction Pennate: designed force production - Multipennate = the most forceful - maximal crosssectional area and large sites for attachment

Fitness Tests – Muscular Strength 1. Hand grip dynamometer 2. 1 RM bench press and leg press (or 10 RM) 3. 7 -level abdominal strength test

Training Methods: Muscular Strength 1. Resistance/weight training Benefits: • Increases strength • Promotes weight loss and balance • Helps prevent osteoporosis • Improves psychological well-being • Improves dynamic stability • Forms the foundation for the development of speed, power and agility © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Resistance/weight training guidelines for beginners and intermediate performers Resistance/weight training guidelines for advanced performers © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Resistance training – extra information • muscle fibres are recruited according to intensity levels • slow-twitch fibres are recruited at low intensities, fast-twitch fibres are recruited as intensity increases to maximal levels • strength, power and hypertrophy training are all anaerobic and focus on fast-twitch fibres • power is developed by working with 'light' resistances at 30– 50% RM to enable the actions to be explosive and performed rapidly • strength is developed by working with 'heavy' resistances at 70– 80% RM to enable the actions to be performed at slow-moderate contraction speed • LME is developed by working with 'moderate' resistances at approx 50% RM to enable the actions to be performed quickly with high repetitions. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

2. Circuit Training • performers rotate through different activity stations (usually 8– 12) • trade off between training multiple fitness components and larger single component gains obtained via more targeted/specific training • unless LME is being trained the circuit should be designed so the same muscle group is not used at consecutive stations • popular for people wanting 'variety' and looking to gain overall 'fitness' benefits and health-related improvements • easy to accommodate large groups of people/teams at the same time • minimal equipment is required as many stations rely on body weight to provide resistance • other methods can be incorporated within circuits

Types of circuits Fixed-time • This is the most common type of circuit • Performers complete as many repetitions of an exercise at each station in an allocated time (30 – 60 seconds) • Short rest periods follow work at each station whilst performers move from one station to the next = 'transition (10 -20 seconds) • If designed properly no-one should be waiting to complete exercises at and stations need to be added for larger groups/teams Fixed-load Fitness Tests – Muscular Strength • Every performer completes a pre-determined number of repetitions at each station (6 clap push-ups, 4 x 10 m shuttle sprints; 15 tuck jumps) • Individual strengths and weaknesses are not taken into account – some people might find the activities easy and others might struggle (this would slow the circuit down) Individual load • This is individualised by first determining the maximum number of repetitions that can be performed in 60 seconds at each station and then performing 50 or 75% of these reps during the actual circuit • Because everyone doing the circuit is completing different reps, some 'wait time' might be experienced in between stations © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

3. Core strength training Improving core strength will: • improve running efficiency • decrease risk of lower back injuries • improve transfer of power between lower and upper body parts • improve balance and stability whilst performing skills • improve acceleration/deceleration. So what is it? It is best depicted as a muscular box bounded by the abdominals at the front, the paraspinals and gluteals at the back, the diaphragm at the top and the pelvic floor and hip girdle musculature at the bottom. The most common type of core training involves Pilates and Swiss ball exercises. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Local muscular endurance = The ability of a muscle, or common group of muscles, to continue sustained contractions in the face of fatigue. Factors affecting local muscle endurance Training – aerobic training will increase blood/oxygen supply to muscle tissue and so increase aerobic ATP production and removal of metabolic by-products. Greater amounts of oxygen will also be extracted by working muscles and decrease amount of anaerobic ATP reliance. Lactic acid and metabolite tolerance – anaerobic training calling upon anaerobic glycolysis will greatly improve the muscle’s abilities to tolerate build up of H+, ADP and inorganic phosphates. Age – because LME is closely related to muscular strength, it will also tend to peak at 25– 30 years of age and then decline by 1% per year. Muscle temperature – elevated temperatures will decrease LME because muscles will increasingly be performing anaerobically as less oxygen is directed to working muscles. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Fitness Tests: Muscular Endurance 1. Partial curl-ups 2. Timed sit-ups 3. Timed push-ups 4. Pull-ups and modified pull-ups 5. Flexed-arm hang test Training Methods: Muscular Endurance 1. Resistance Training 2. Circuit Training

N. B. SKILL-RELATED COMPONENT Muscular power = The ability to exert a maximal contraction in one explosive effort. Factors affecting muscle power Age – muscular power will tend to peak around 25 years of age and then decline by 1% per year. Gender – males have greater muscle mass than females so will also have greater muscular power. Speed of contraction – the lighter the load the faster the contraction and vice versa. So moderate speed and strength will generate maximal muscular power. Fibre type – fast-twitch fibres can generate muscular power quicker than slow-twitch fibres. http: //www. coachr. org/fiber. htm Fibre recruitment – muscular power relies upon fast-twitch fibres being activated quickly and hence many ‘intense’ impulses are sent to relevant muscle groups requiring explosive efforts. Muscle length – muscles are able to apply greatest power when stretched just past their resisting length coinciding with maximum actin–myosin overlap and cross bridge formation. So movements involving eccentric contractions generate greatest muscular power (length-tension-angle relationship p. 183) © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Fitness Tests: Muscular Power 1. Vertical Jump 2. Standing long jump test 3. Basketball throw Training Methods: Muscular Power 1. Resistance Training 2. Circuit Training 3. Plyometrics Training

3. Plyometrics training • calls upon the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles • a rapid eccentric contraction (stored elastic energy) produces a stretch reflex followed by a rapid concentric contraction • improves speed, agility and power by improved neural pathways and more efficient fibre recruitment and firing rates. • improves running efficiency by generating more 'bound' per foot contact and hence increasingly being used by endurance runners. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Flexibility = The ability of a joint to move through its full range of motion. Factors affecting flexibility Joint structure – the more stable a joint is via its capsule and connective tissue the stronger it is, but the less flexible it becomes. Flexibility must be expressed with reference to a joint or sequence of joints. Age – flexibility tends to be greatest at various body joints between the ages of 8– 10. Gender – females tend to be more flexible than males because, amongst other reasons, they possess greater levels of oestrogen. Resistance – (muscle, bones, tendons and ligaments = connective tissues and fat). The greater the resistance provided by these structures, the lower the resultant flexibility. Somatotype – excessive fat (endomorphy) and muscle tissue (mesomorphy) will both contribute to reduced levels of flexibility. Temperature – warming-up will decrease joint viscosity and contribute to increased flexibility. Training – dynamic flexibility should be incorporated into all training sessions (warm up and warm down) to avoid reduction in joint flexibility and decreases in biomechanical movement efficiency. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Improved flexibility will: • Improve sporting performance through enhancing developments in speed, strength and power • Reduce likelihood of injury, especially in sports where a full range of motion is required • Improve posture • Reduce the impact of DOMS • Release stress and tension Fitness Tests: Flexibility 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Modified sit and reach test Shoulder and wrist elevation test Trunk and neck extension Ankle extension test Shoulder rotation test Ankle dorsiflexion test

Training Methods: Flexibility 1. Static stretching When a stretch is held in a position for at least 10 seconds. More suitable during a warmdown, not a warm-up 2. Dynamic stretching Moving a joint through its range of motion with controlled momentum. Ideal as part of a warm-up and should mimic the movements performed in the game/sport. 3. Ballistic stretching The same as dynamic stretching but with greater force. This can be potentially dangerous, higher risk of injury. 4. PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation) A muscle is gently moved through its range of motion until the first sign of discomfort. It should then be held for 6 seconds before relaxing the muscle. It is then stretched again to discomfort (often a little further) for 6 seconds before being released.

Body composition = The ratio of fat-free mass to fat mass and essentially a person’s body ‘shape’ or somatotype. Factors affecting body composition Age – after 40 years of age, people’s metabolism tends to slow down and in women hormonal imbalances can cause them to increase % body fat. Gender – average male body fat is approx 15%; average female body fat = 25%. Fibre type – people with a higher percentage of fast twitch fibres have lower % body fat. Genetics – body types tend to be 90% genetically inherited. Energy balance – people with a positive energy balance will have higher % body fat.

Fitness Tests: Body Composition 1. Body Mass Index (BMI) BMI = weight / height 2 This measurement can be misleading as it doesn’t take into consideration the difference between lean body mass and fat mass and therefore may not be suitable for trained performers 2. Waist Circumference Healy professional are now recognising that the pattern of fat distribution is an important health risk factor. It is a greater health risk to carry excess fat around your abdomen (apple shape) then around your hips (pear shape) 3. Sum of skinfolds

Skill related components

Muscular power = The ability to exert a maximal contraction in one explosive effort. Factors affecting muscle power Age – muscular power will tend to peak around 25 years of age and then decline by 1% per year. Gender – males have greater muscle mass than females so will also have greater muscular power. Speed of contraction – greatest power/force generated when both speed of contraction and force of contraction are around 35% of each maximum. Moderate speed and strength will generate maximal muscular power. Fibre type – fast-twitch fibres can generate muscular power quicker than slow-twitch fibres. http: //www. coachr. org/fiber. htm Fibre recruitment – muscular power relies upon fast-twitch fibres being activated quickly and hence many ‘intense’ impulses are sent to relevant muscle groups requiring explosive efforts. Muscle length – muscles are able to apply greatest power when stretched just past their resisting length coinciding with maximum actin–myosin overlap and cross bridge formation. So movements involving eccentric contractions generate greatest muscular power (length- tension-angle relationship p. 183) © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Speed = The ability to move the whole body, or body parts, from one place to another in the shortest possible time. When speed remains maximal and constant, this is known as speed endurance, and must be linked with LME as speed is maintained despite accumulating metabolic by-products Factors affecting speed Fibre type – fast-twitch fibres can generate greater speeds than slow-twitch fibres. Fibre recruitment –speed relies upon fast-twitch fibres being activated quickly and hence many ‘intense’ impulses are sent to relevant muscle groups requiring explosive efforts. Fibre arrangement/shape – fusiform muscles with low attachment points contribute to speed more than pennate muscles which are stronger. Reaction time – faster reaction times contribute to quicker movements. Range of motion at joints – the greater the range of motion due to increased viscosity/temperatures and low restriction from fat, muscle bulk, scar tissue, the quicker movements can occur. Efficiency of movement – correct techniques ensuring maximum acceleration and summation of force contribute to greatest speed. Heredity – bone/lever length (longer bones are capable of generating greater speed than shorter ones) and ligament/tendon attachment sites (longer and less restrictive attachments) all contribute to greater speed development. It should be noted that fasttwitch: slow-twitch ratios are also inherited.

Fitness Tests: Speed 1. 35 m sprint 2. 50 m sprint Training Methods: Speed 1. Speed training • short interval training combined with technique development will contribute to improved speed • strength development and plyometrics will also contribute to improved speed • running speed is a combination of stride frequency and stride length and speed will improve if one is maintained whilst the other is improved. Stride frequency will be improved as more contact is made with the ground and typical training drills to develop this involve downhill running, speed ladders and short hurdle work. Stride length is developed by improving leg strength to allow longer strides to be taken.

Agility = the ability to change body position or direction quickly and accurately whilst maintaining balance. Factors affecting agility Centre of gravity – athletes with a lower C. O. G tend to be more agile due to greater abilities to balance. Speed – males are faster than females and hence will have greater agility than females. Reaction time – faster reaction times contribute to quicker movements and greater agility. Range of motion at joints – the greater the range of motion due to increased viscosity/ temperatures and low restriction from fat, muscle bulk, scar tissue, the more agile performers will be. Fibre type – fast-twitch fibres can generate greater speeds and are called upon before slow-twitch fibres as part of preferential recruitment during agile activities. Flexibility – females have greater amounts of flexibility at various joints than males which accounts for smaller differences between the genders compared to other fitness components.

Fitness Tests: Agility 1. Illinois Agility Test 2. SEMO Agility Test

Coordination = The ability to use the body’s senses to execute motor skills smoothly and accurately. Factors affecting coordination Sequencing of movements – the more parts or sequences to a movement, the higher the level of co-ordination required Stage of learning – autonomous performers are more coordinated than associative or cognitive performers. Practice/learning – there is a direct relationship between amount of learning and coordination. Fitness Tests: Coordination 1. Alternate-hand wall toss test Assesses hand-eye coordination 2. Soft-drink can test

Balance = The ability to maintain equilibrium whilst stationary (static) or moving (dynamic) Factors affecting balance Base of support – the greater the base of support, the greater the equilibrium. Centre of gravity – by lowering one’s centre of gravity, balance is increased. Core stability – greater core stability leads to improved balance. Fitness Tests: Balance 1. Stork balance stand test 2. Standing balance test

Reaction time = The time between a signal being detected and the first movement/ response to this signal. Factors affecting reaction time Optimal arousal and concentration – both these factors will contribute to quick and appropriate reactions. Number of responses – reaction time is quickest when there is only one possible response. If there are several possible responses, performers must decide which one they are going to use and reaction time is slowed. ‘Noise’ – distractions add to reaction time and slow down responses Fitness Tests: Reaction Time 1. Ruler-drop reaction test 2. Online reaction tests http: //www. exploratorium. edu/baseball/reactiontime. html

Training methods should be chosen because of their specific ability to improve fitness components and energy systems. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011