COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS Notes By Onyango Ngoye Introduction

COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS Notes By Onyango Ngoye

Introduction • The various kinds of livestock reared are of different types and breeds. • The term types of dairy cattle refer to the purpose of which the animal is kept. • For cattle, there are the breeds for milk, beef breeds for meat and dual purpose breeds for both milk and meat production. • The term breed on the other hand, refers to a group of animals having the same characteristics and a common origin.

Breeds of Cattle • In the study of cattle, there are terms commonly used to identify animals of different age and sex. These terms include: • Bull – mature male cattle. • Bullock – Mature castrated male cattle. • Steer – Young castrated male cattle

Important Terms • Cow – Mature female cattle • Heifer – Young female cattle between weaning and first calving • Calf – Young one of cattle

• There are two categories of cattle breeds based on place of origin. These are: Ø Indigenous Ø Exotic cattle breeds

(a) Indigenous Livestock Breeds These are native or local cattle that have their origin within the tropics. They belong to a class called Bos indicus. It is important to note that indigenous cattle are not classified as breeds because of their variation in characteristics due to a lot of uncontrolled breeding over the years. They include the Boran and the Small East African Zebu which comprised of the Masai, Nandi , Ankole, Bukendi and Karamojong cattle.

Characteristics of Indigenous Breeds of Livestock 1. They have humps that store fat which is broken down to energy and water in times of starvation. 2. They are fairly tolerant to high temperatures due to the presence of dewlap and thick hides. 3. They have high tolerance of tropical diseases such as Trypanosomiasis.

4. They have a slow growth rate leading to late maturity. 5. The indigenous heifer served when they attain an age of 2 -3 years. 6. They have low production for both meat and milk due to inheritance of poor characteristics.

7. They can walk for long distances in search of food and water. 8. They can stay for long periods without food and water without seriously affecting their performance and body condition. 9. They both have long calving intervals of more than one year.

The Boran Cattle 1. The Boran is found in North Eastern Kenya. It is the most important of the indigenous beef cattle. 2. Its color is variable but is mostly white. The white color radiates the heat away, making the animal well adapted to high temperatures.

3. Its body is compact, deep and wide. The rump is long, wide and dropping. 4. It has a large hump and dewlap. 5. It produces good quality beef. 6. The breed grows slowly and matures late.

7. Cows weigh an average of 400 -450 kg and bulls 550 -650 kg. 8. Boran cattle are used extensively in improving the Zebu for quality meat production. Borans are affected by cold temperatures that slow their maturity.

Exotic Cattle Breeds These are breeds of cattle that originated from the temperate regions of Europe. They belong to the sub species of cattle Bos taurus.

Their characteristics are: 1. They have no humps 2. They have low tolerance to high temperatures and this makes them to be popular in cool climates of the Kenya highlands. 3. They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases.

4. They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity. The heifer is served when they are one and a half to two years of age. 5. They are good producers of both meat and milk.

6. They cannot walk for long distances. 7. They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed.

Types of Cattle Breeds. 1. Dairy cattle breeds 2. Beef cattle breeds 3. Dual purpose breeds

1. Dairy Cattle Breeds General characteristics 1. Their bodies are wedged to triangular shaped. This is due to heavy hindquarters with a tapering shape towards the head. 2. They have a straight top line. 3. They have well set apart hindquarters to allow room for big udder. 4. They have large and well developed udders with large teats that are well spaced.

5. They have prominent milk veins. 6. Their lean bodies carry little flesh. This is easily noted if the pin bone is visible. 7. They have a large stomach capacity that enables the animal to feed heavily for high milk production. 8. They are docile with mild temperament.

Dairy Cattle breeds. (a)Friesian • Origin - This breed originated from Holland is widely distributed all over the world. It is also known as Holstein. • Colour-The Friesian is white and black. It may appear white with few black marks or black with few white marks. However, their tail switch, the leg parts below the knees and a patch on the forehead are always white.

• Size -It is the largest of the dairy breeds. Cows weigh an average of 550 – 680 kg and bulls 900 -1000 kg. The calves are born large, with a birth weight of 35 -40 kg. • Milk production-The Friesian is the highest milk producing breed with an average milk capacity of 9, 150 kg per lactation of 305 days. However, the milk has low butter fat content of about 3. 5%. • Heifer under good management should reach service age at 21 months and calve for the first time at 30 months of age. Friesians are good feeders and require large quantities of fodder.

(b) Ayrshire • Origin - Ayrshire originated from Scotland. It is widely distributed all over the world • Colour - The Ayrshire is either dark brown or red with white marking or white with dark brown or red markings. • Size -This breed is medium in weight being second largest from Friesian. Cows weigh average of 360 -590 kg while bulls weigh an average of 500 -720 kg. • Calves weigh 30 -35 kg at calving.

• Milk production - Under good management, the milk yields may reach 5, 185 kg per lactation period of 305 days. Butter fat content is 4%. Heifers should be served at 21 months of age and therefore first calving is at 30 months of age at the time. Ayrshire is hardy and is able to feed well even in poor pastures. This characteristic makes them ideal in areas with medium amount of pastures.

(c)Guernsey • Origin - Guernsey originated from Guernsey Island off the coast of France in England channel. It is known as a channel Island breed. • Color - The breed is brown with white color in the face, leg parts below the knees and hocks, tail switch and flanks. The color ranges from light fawn to almost brown. • Size -Cows weigh average of 450 -500 kg while bulls weigh an average of 540 -700 kg. • Calves weigh 25 -30 kg at birth • .

• Milk production - A Guernsey produces an average of 6, 100 kg per lactation period of 305 days. Milk has 4. 5 -5% butter fat content. The heifer reach service age at 21 months and calve for the first time at 30 months. The breed has moderate pasture requirements

(d) Jersey • Origin - This breed originated from Jersey Island in the English channel like the Jersey it is known as Island breed. • Color -Varies from light yellowish brown (fawn) to a shade of black. It has protruding black eyes. The tail switch and muzzle are black. This breed has true dairy conformation. It has a small wedge shape with dished face. • Size - Jersey are the smallest of the dairy breeds. Cows average 350 -450 kg and the bull 540 -700 kg. • Calves are born small, weighting about 20 -25 kg.

• Milk production- The Jersey produces the lowest amount of milk in comparison to other dairy breeds. However, the milk has butter fat content of 5 -5. 3 %. Under good management they should produce 4, 270 kg of milk per lactation period of 305 days. • • Jersey should reach a service age at 15 -18 months and calves for the first time at 21 -27 months. It also has little pasture requirements and is an excellent grazer in poor pastures. •

2. Beef Cattle Breeds • General Characteristics • They are blocky in shape, that is, appear square or rectangular with compact bodies. • Hey have deep well fleshed bodies.

• They grow fast leading to early maturity. • They are efficient converters of food into meat and fat. • They are able to maintain good weight even during adverse condition such as drought. • They are good foragers, that is, they have is reduced selective grazing.

They are more tolerant to high temperatures. They bred regularly. They are more resistance to diseases. They have short strong legs to support their heavy bodies. • • •

The beef breeds a) Aberdeen Angus • Origin - The breed originated from North East Scotland in the county of Aberdeen • Color - Black with long smooth coat of hair • Size and conformation-It is a large breed appearing cylindrical, compact, lowly set, broad and deep, smooth and well muscled throughout the body. This breed matures early. The carcass is high of quality with high dressing percentage. The cow weights about 720 kg and the bull 900 kg. This breed matures early and the cow has good mothering ability. It is polled.

• b) Galloway • Origin - The breed originated from Scotland • Color - It is black in color and often has a brown tinge on the coat. • Size and conformation - It is similar to that of Aberdeen Angus but with a rather longer body and hindquarters not well developed. The woolen appearance together with thick hide enables the animal to withstand cold conditions such as those in the highlands.

• c) Hereford • )Origin - The breed originated from England in the icountry of Hereford • ii) Color - Deep red body with the face and leg parts below knees and hocks always white. The white color can also be found on the tail switch, flanks , underline and brisket. • Size and conformation- Rectangular in form with deep and thick flesh. It has large well set hind quarters. Cows weigh about 840 kg and bull 1000 kg. •

3. Dual Purpose Breeds • These are breeds of cattle that are good in production of both milk and meat. This means that it is economical to rear the breed either for meat or milk as opposed to other breeds discussed under the dairy or beef categories. However these breeds do not excel in the production of either products, that is meat or milk.

• • a) Sahiwal I) Origin - The breed originated from Pakistan ii) Color - The color is brown- red Iii) Size and conformation - Sahiwal are heavily built and short legged. The breed has high temperature tolerance. Their udders are large. Milk production averages 2700 -3000 kg per lactation with 3. 7 % butterfat. They have large dewlaps and fluffy umbilical fold. Sahiwals do no let down their milk easily. They are used to crossbreed local cows for meat production.

b) Red Poll i)Origin - The breed originated from England. ii)Color - The color is deep red with a white nose. Iii)Size and conformation - Red Poll is a mediumsized breed with cows weighing 450 kg. The breed is polled; its back is broad and straight. It has deep ribs and medium to short legs. • • •

• c) Simmental • i)Origin -It originated from Switzerland • ii)Color -It has light red white patches and a white head • iii)Size and Conformation - It is very large and heavy breed that has a fast growth rate and an average milk production. It can produce 3600 kg of milk per lactation with a butterfat of 4% content under good conditions of supplementary feeding, with high quality fodder. It is a popular breed in Mbaruk and Gilgil areas of Nakuru district.

d) Beef Shorthorns • i)Origin - The breed originated from England • ii)Color - The color is red, roan and white. This breed is slow in growth and late maturing unlike other beef breeds. However, it can produce a god amount of milk.

• iii)Size and conformation - Cows weigh 545630 kg and the bulls 700 -900 kg

e) Charolais i) Origin - The breed originated from France ii) Color - It is white or creamy white iii) Size and conformation - It has a heavily built body and large hind quarters. • Cows weigh 1000 kg and the bulls 1200 kg

PIG BREEDS Terms Used to Describe Pigs of Different Age and Sex: • Piglet- A young pig from birth weaning • Gilt- A young female pig from weaning up to the first parturition • Sow- A mature female pig after first parturition • Boar- A mature male pig • In Kenya, the pig industry relies fully on the exotic breeds as there are no indigenous pig breeds.

a) Large White • This breed originated from Britain. It is a long, large and white pig. The skin may have a few blue spots. The snout is broad and slightly dished. The ears are upright • It is the most prolific of all pig breeds. Sows have a good amount of milk for the piglets. They are also good mothers. The breed is slow maturing but a good converter of feed into meat. Mature sows weigh about 300 kg and the boars 350 kg. The breed is widely kept in Kenya for production of pork.

b) Landrace • This breed originated from Denmark. It is white in color. It has a straight snout and long ears drooping over the face. It is a long lean pig. The hams are deep and broad. It has weak legs but is prolific with good mothering ability. The pig is commonly kept for bacon production.

c) Saddlebacks • There are two breeds of saddle namely the Essex and Wessex saddlebacks. • They have a black body with a white stripe over the shoulders. The difference is brought about by the color of the legs. Both breeds have long legs and snouts that are slightly dished. The ears are slightly dropped. They are good breeds fro pork production. • These breeds can utilize the young soft grass and thus can be kept outside to graze. They have good mothering ability and are quiet(less noisy).

• (i)Essex Saddleback - This breed has a black body with shoulders and all four legs white. • ii)Wessex Saddleback - This breed has a black body with shoulders and only the front legs white.

d) Berkshire • This breed is black with white color on the feet, nose and tail. The pig is kept for bacon production.

e) Middlewhite • It originated from Britain. Its color is white and its similar to the large white except for the small size. Ears are erect and the snout slightly dished. It is prolific and has a good motherly ability. It is an early maturing pig and is kept for pork production.

f) Duroc Jersey pig • It was developed in Britain it is pure black. It has a long body with drooping ears. The breed is hardy and is kept for both pork and bacon. Figure 7. 9 shows a Duroc Jersey pig.

POULTRY BREEDS • Introduction • The term poultry refers to domestic birds which are kept for meat or egg production. The most popular poultry in Kenya is chicken. Other types are Quail, turkey, ducks, pigeon , geese and ostriches • Chicken are found all over Kenya. It is not possible to give specific breeds names for non-commercial chicken because they have interbred for many years. They are generally given local names. They have various color shade on their plumage ranging from black to white or combination of such colors. They go broody occasionally and normally incubate their eggs in the natural way. • Commercial chickens are kept for either meat (table birds or broilers) or egg (layers) production. The table birds are usually heavy and fast growing, whereas layers are light bodied and produce large eggs of 50 -60 gram each.

Terms Used to Describe Poultry of Different Age and Sex • Chick Newly hatched bird from one day to eight weeks old • Pullet Young female bird from eight weeks to point of lay • Cockerel Young male bird from eight week up to maturity

Hen Cock Layer Broiler production • Capon rendered sterile • • • Mature female bird Mature male bird Bird kept for egg production Bird kept for meat Bird which has been

• Most of the farmers buy their commercially poultry from breeders. • These birds are crosses of two different breeds and have good characteristics of the parent breeds. A crossbreed which has acquired the characteristics of parent breeds is said to have hybrid vigour or heterosis. The fact that these hybrids do not go broody is an important characteristic for farmers who want to have eggs throughout the year.

• Breeders are continually crossing the pure breeds resulting in many hybrids being released into the market. These include: “star cross”, 'Sheavers', 'Brown Eggers', 'Israel 2000', 'Golden Comets', 'Sharers', 'Thornbars', 'Starbros' and others.

• The various pure breeds are divided into either heavy or light breeds. I. The heavy breeds include Rhode Island, Light Sussex, New Hampshire Red and Black Australops. II. The light breeds are Loghorns, Ancona, Minorca and Sykes.

a) Rhode Island • This is dual purpose breed. It originated from America. It has yellow skin and reddish brown plumage. Cocks weigh about 4 kg and hens 3 kg.

b) Light Sussex, • This is a British bred whose plumage is white in color. The neck hackles, ends of wings and the tail have a few black feathers. It can be used as a dual purpose breed but lay smaller eggs than most good layers. Cocks weigh 4 kg and hens 3 kg.

c) New Hampshire Red • It originated from America and has light red plumage. It is a heavy breed and matures very fast. This characteristic is liked by breeders who want to produce hybrid for table birds. Cock weighs 4. 5 kg while hen weighs 3. 5 kg.

d) Black Australops. • This breed originated from Australia and was brought to Kenya by Europeans settlers from South Africa. The breed has black plumage with a greenish sheen which looks beautiful in the sun. The hens lay fewer eggs than other breeds because they often go broody and fatten quickly. Cocks weigh 4 kg while hens weigh 3 kg. Figure 7. 11 shows different breeds of chicken.

SHEEP BREEDS Introduction • There are many exotic and indigenous sheep reared in Kenya. Indigenous sheep are well spread throughout the country due to their good adaptability to the diverse environment.

• The various sheep breeds are kept for either meat or wool production. • Some of them are good producers of both. Their bodies are covered with either wool or hair.

Classification of sheep Breeds • The classification of various breeds of sheep is based on the purpose for which the animal is kept. Under this classification, there are three types of sheep breeds, namely, wool meat, and dual purpose breeds.

Wool Breeds • The only breed of sheep that has high quality wool is the Merino. Its wool is used to standardize wool from other breeds. • The breed originated from Spain and spread to all parts of the World. Different countries have bred Merino to suit their own conditions. In Kenya, the Breed is quite popular for upgrading the local Red Maasai resulting to an offspring that does well in the Semi arid areas.

The characteristics of the Merino are: • They are small in body and angular in form • They have a drooping rump • They are narrow in the chest and consequently have a close-together front • Their muzzle is flesh colored

• Their wool , hooves and horns are white • They are a slow maturing breed and have a lambing percentage of 100. • They are hardy breed that does well under extensive conditions • This makes them to be kept in the moderately dry places of Kenya such as Naivasha

• They have a good flocking instinct which makes them to be put as a big flock under one shepherd • They produce fleece that is highly valued , long stapled (with a staple length of 8 -10 cm) and is low in shrinkage. • Under good condition, the ram weighs 63 -80 kg and the ewes 49 -57 kg. The carcass is of low quality.

Meat Breeds • These are breeds that produce high quality meat or mutton. They are covered with either low quality wool which is never shorn. The various breeds include:

(i)Dorper: This is a breed that produces a very high quality carcass. It was developed through crossing Dorset Horn and Black Head Persian and thus regarded as an indigenous sheep.

• It is white in color with a black, the body covering is of wool-liked hair. It is a breed that is suitable for hot and dry conditions. It is highly prolific with a good growth rate.

(ii)Black Persian: This sheep has hair covering its body. It is an indigenous sheep originated from Arabia and spread fast to the arid and semi-arid of northern Kenya. It has become a popular breed in North – Eastern Province of Kenya due to being tolerant to the conditions. It has black head and the rest of the body is white. It is long legged, has a fat tail and is polled.

iii) Red Maasai Sheep: This is an indigenous that is quite popular all over the country due its ability to utilize poor pastures. Its color varies from white to red with hair covering its body. It has been extensively crossbred with Merino. Figure 7. 15 shows a Red Maasai Sheep.

c)Dual Purpose Breeds: • These are breeds that are good in the production of both meat and wool. They include:

i)Romney Marsh: It is suited to high altitude areas that have permanent wet pastures. It is resistant to foot rot and worm infestations.

Its characteristics are: Wide head and poll that is well covered with wool. Wide chest with straight back and short legs Produces wool of medium length that weights 3. 6 -4. 1 kg • Rams weigh 102 -113 kg • Black hooves • • •

ii)Corriedale: This breed has relatively high quality wool and meat. It is polled and well covered with coarse wool. It has moderately long legs that are well covered with wool to the hooves. It produces wool of good length and low shrinkage. The fleece weighs 5 to 5. 5 kg. Rams weigh 84. 2 kg and 90. 6 kg. It resulted from crossbreeding Merino and Lincoln and thus as an exotic breed.

iii) Hampshire Down: It is a hardy, large breed which thrives on poor pastures. It is prolific and early maturing.

General characteristics • Face and ears are dark brown or nearly black. It is well covered over the poll and forehead with wool • The ram weigh 125 kg and the ewe 81 -102 kg • Fleece weigh average 3. 6 kg but sometimes it is downgraded because of the black fibers. The wool is coarse and is about 7. 5 cm long. • The lambing percentage is 125 -140

Terms Used to Describe Sheep of Different Age and Sex • Ram Mature male • Ewe mature female • Lamb A young one of any sex

GOAT BREEDS • Introduction • Goats are gaining popularity in many households due to their low feed requirement as compared to cattle and sheep

Terms Used to Describe Goats of Different Age and Sex • Billy or Buck mature male goat • Nanny or Doe mature female • Kid young ones of goat

• The various goat breed s are classified into dairy, meat and hair goats. Dairy Goats • These have high milk production capacity. They are further subdivided into temperate or exotic and tropical or indigenous dairy goat. The temperate dairy goat include:

i) Saanen: This is a large white colored goat that originated from Switzerland. It has upright ears that point forward. Its milk yield averages 3 -3. 5 liters per day, with a butterfat percentage of 3. 5 -4.

ii)Toggenburg : It originated from Switzerland. It is brown in color with two white stripes running from the eyes to the nose. It is a popular breed in Kenya because of its ability of forage on local grass and shrubs. The milk production capacity of the Toggenburg is slightly lower than that of Saanen. It yields an average of 2. 5 -3 kg per day of milk with a butterfat of 3. 3%.

• British Alpine: This is a breed that is widely distributed in Kenya but its population is much lower than that of Saanen and Toggenburg. It originated from Britain.

• The tropical dairy goats include: • i)Anglo – Nubian: The breed is mainly roan and white in color. It has long legs, and flopping ears and is pooled. The adult female weighs 60 -70 kg and produces 1 -2 litres of milk per day.

• ii)Jamnapari: This is a crossbreed between Indian Jamnapari and the Egyptian Nubian. It originated from India. Its color ranges from frawn, white to black. It has large ears that flop. The breed is horned.

• The amount of milk produced by this breed is around 1. 0 to 1. 5 litres per day. The Adult female weighs 45 -60 kg. Meat Goats • These are breeds of goat that have high quality carcasses, thus are popular for meat production. They include: • Galla: This goat is quite popular in Northern Kenya and coastal regions of Kenya due to its ability to adapt to hot conditions. It has a white colored body that has very good quality meat

• Boer: It was developed in South Africa and later imported to East Africa. Boer has gained popularity due to its ability to twin and triplet with rapid body growth and weight gain. It is white in color and long eared.

Hair Goats • The only breed in this category is the Angora goat that is reared for its hair referred to as mohair. It originated from Angora in Asia. • The breed is not very popular due its vulnerability to internal parasites. It is white in colour.

RABBIT BREEDS IN KENYA Introduction Rabbit keeping is gaining popularity in Kenya because: 1. They do well in virtually all environmental conditions. 2. They have low food requirements. 3. They have low space requirements. 4. They are kept for meat and are regarded as a cheap source of protein. 5. Their droppings are rich in nutrients therefore essential in maintaining sol fertility.

Terms Used to Describe Rabbits of Different Age and Sex • Kindling - Young one of a rabbit • Doe - Mature female rabbit • Buck - Mature male rabbit

a) New Zealand White Characteristics: 1. It has white fur. 2. Albino skin. (It therefore suffers sunburns) 3. Red eyes. 4. Early maturing. • It is kept for meat production. Its body weigh at maturity is 4. 0 -5. 5 kg.

b) California White Characteristics: 1. White fur. 2. Black ears nose paws and tail. 3. is is a very prolific breed.

c)Flemish Giant 1. Colour is a grey and blue–black breed. 2. Has hair and not fur. 3. Kept for its good meat.

d)Chinchilla 1. Colour; 2. Gives high quality fur. 3. Good quality meat.

e) Earlops Comes in various colours. 1. This is a breed that is easily identified by its drooping ears.

CAMELS Introduction • Camel are very important in the arid and semi arid regions of the world. They do well in such areas because they tolerate high temperatures and stay for long periods without food and water. • Camels are kept for:

• Milk They produce about 9. 0 liters per day in the lactation period of 300 days with butterfat content of 3. 0 -4. 0%. • Meat Carmel meat is more fibrous than beef or mutton. • • Animal power - They are beast of burden in areas where they are kept. They can carry loads of up to 300 kg which are placed on the hump. •

• After slaughtering, the hide is very valuable in the textile industry. Figure 7. 25 shows the parts of a camel. Species of Camels. • Camels are classified into two species depending on the number of humps.

CAMELS IN KENYA Dromedary • This species is the single- hump camel which originated from Arabia and Syria. It is the only camel species reared in Kenya.

Bactrian Origin: Central America. It is mainly found in temperate regions. Characteristics: 1. This species has two humps and much smaller than dromedary. 2. It has more fur coverage on the body compare to the Dromedary. 3. Due to high amount of fur the species is shorn and yields about 5 -12 kg o fur per shearing season.

DONKEY 1. These animals are kept from provision of animal power. 2. They: • carry loads directly on their backs. • Pull carts. • Pull ploughs.

• • • • • Revision Exercise. Discuss the importance of livestock to a Kenyan farmer. List the characteristics of a dairy cow What characteristics of a beef calf would you look for during selection? Name the various breeds of Beef cattle Rabbits Dairy goats Differentiate between the following breeds of livestock New Zealand White and California White Large White and Landrace What is the color of each of the following breeds of Livestock? Wessex Saddlebacks? Toggenburg? Light Sussex? Outline the factors that contribute to the distribution of livestock in Kenya.

• AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS • Definition of Economics • Economics is the study of how man and society choose , with or without the use of money , to employ scarce productive resources which could have alternative uses, to produce various commodities over time and distribute them for consumption, now and in the future, among various people and groups in the society. (a definition by Samuelson Scott, Second Canadian Edition).

• In relation to this, Agricultural Economics could be defined as an applied science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs, by combining the limited supplies of land, capital , labor and management to produce goods and services for use by the society over a period of time.

• BASIC ECONOMIC CONCEPTS Scarcity • The factor of production, that is land, capital, labor and management are scarce or limited. A farmer, for example, cannot have all the land or the capital needed for production. This means that resources necessary to satisfy his production needs are limited. •

• On the other hand, production needs are limited. Consequently the farmer is faced with problems of limited resources to satisfy limited needs, therefore, forced to make choices. The farmer must decide how to allocate available resources to different and competing enterprise. Scarcity affects agricultural production in a various ways. A farmer for example may be unable to apply the recommended amount of fertilizers in growing a crop because of limited capital, in from of money to purchase the required amount.

• On the other hand, the more scarce the resource, the higher the demand for it and the higher it costs. These high costs of scarce resources have direct effects on agricultural production in terms of total yield and profits.

Preference and choice. • Since the available resources for agricultural production are limited in relation to production needs of many competing enterprises, then a choice has to be made on how to allocate these resources. This means that a farmer has to choose one or more enterprises, from amongst many, on which to use the available resources. The choice made is determined by such factors as the need of the society, the farmer’s preference and ecological factors.

• Preference and choice in the use of the available resources can affect agricultural production. A society for example may prefer to allocate more of the available resources on the production of non- food cash crops than on the production of food crops. In the long run, however, this may lead to a food crisis in that society.

Opportunity Cost • We have already seen that a choice ahs to be made in the location of the resources. A pieces of land, for example may be suitable for the production of wheat and maize. If a farmer choose to grow maize the returns that would have been obtained from wheat is forgone.

• The forgone returns are called opportunity cost. In other words, opportunity cost is the returns from the best alternative forgone. Opportunity cost exist only where there alternatives.

FARM RECORDS • Introduction • Farming as a business should be treated as any commercial enterprise because it involves many activities. Farm records should be kept to avoid the loss of important information. It becomes necessary that farmers should keep accounts of all various activities in writing. These records should be neat, concise and complete, showing actual amounts, weights, measurements and dates as the case may be. This means that these accounts are actually of what has occurred or occur in. Up- to-date and true records, methodically kept throughout the year, on all operations are important and useful to the farmer. Farm records are documents kept in the farm showing farm activities over a given period of time.

• • • Uses of Farm Records help to compare the performance of different enterprises within a farm or other farms They show the history of the farm Guide a farmer din planning and budgeting of farm operations Help to detect losses or theft on the farm Help in the assessments of income tax to avoid over or under taxation Help to determine the value of the farm or to determine the assets and liabilities of the farm Make it easy to share profit and losses in partnership Help in settling disputes among heirs to the estates when a farmer dies without leaving a will. Records help to show whether the farm business is making profits or losses. This information may help in obtaining credit. Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft and fire of farm assets. Provide labor information like terminal benefits , for example, NSSF dues

• In summary, farm records will help the farmer in making management decisions such as organizing crop rotation programmes, selecting farm enterprises, formulating production policies, planning and budgeting various enterprises. Finally they help the farmers in selling certain assets like farm animals, machinery or the farm itself. •

• Types of Farm records • The type of farm records each farmer keeps mainly depends on the type of the farm projects and enterprises being undertaken.

• Whatever the case, of farm records can be divided into two groups: – Firstly, there are those records of the general nature kept regardless of the specific enterprises carried out. These include labor records, farm diary and inventory records. – On the other hand there are those records on specific enterprises or on single units of a specific enterprise. This category includes records on livestock production, individual animals and disease control. Under normal circumstances, the following are commonly kept records.

• Production Records • Production records show total yield and the yield per unit of each enterprise. Records, for instance, should show total number of bags of maize from the whole farm and from each hectare of land; or total amount of milk. • Inventory Records • Field Operation Records