Colonies Become New Nations Struggles for Democracy Summer

Colonies Become New Nations & Struggles for Democracy Summer Academy World History Semester 2, Days 13 -14

Congress Party l The largest political party in India during its transition period from being a British colony to an independent nation. Most members of the Congress Party were Hindus, but the party at times had many Muslim members. l l After World War II, dramatic political changes began to take place across the world. This was especially the case with regard to the policy of colonialism. Countries that held colonies began to question the practice. After the world struggle against dictatorship, many leaders argued that no country should control another nation. Others questioned the high cost and commitment of holding colonies. Meanwhile, the people of colonized regions continued to press even harder for their freedom. All of this led to independence for one of the largest and most populous colonies in the world: British-held India. The British had ruled India for almost two centuries. Indian resistance to Britain, which had existed from the beginning, intensified in 1939, when Britain committed India’s armed forces to World War II without first consulting the colony’s elected representatives. The move left Indian nationalists stunned and humiliated. Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi launched a nonviolent campaign of noncooperation with the British. Officials imprisoned numerous nationalists for this action. In 1942, the British tried to gain the support of the nationalists by promising governmental changes after the war. But the offer did not include Indian independence. Closure Question #1: Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to the future of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence)

Muslim League / Muhammad Ali Jinnah l Muslim League – Indian political party founded to protect Muslim interests. The Muslim League was the chief competition of the Congress Party, which Muslims believed served only the interests of Hindus. l Muhammad Ali Jinnah – Leader of the Muslim League; Jinnah insisted that all Muslims resign from the Congress Party, vowing that Muslims would never accept Indian independence if it meant that Hindus would become rulers of the nation. l As they intensified their struggle against the British, Indians also struggled with each other. India had long been home to two main religious groups. In the 1940’s, India had approximately 350 million Hindus and about 100 million Muslims. When World War II ended, Britain found itself faced with enormous war debts. As a result, British leaders began to rethink the expense of maintaining and governing distant colonies. With India continuing to push for independence, the stage was set for the British to hand over power. However, a key problem emerged: Who should receive power – Hindus or Muslims? Muslims resisted attempts to include them in an Indian government dominated by Hindus. Rioting between the two groups broke out in several Indian cities. In August 1946, four days of clashes in Calcutta left more than 5, 000 people dead and more than 15, 000 hurt. Closure Question #1: Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to the future of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence)

Partition l The division of India into separate Hindu and Muslim nations. British officials became convinced that the only way to ensure a safe and secure India was partition. In 1947, the northwest and eastern regions of India, where most Muslims lived, became the new nation of Pakistan. l l The British House of Commons passed an act on July 16, 1947, that granted two nations, India and Pakistan, independence in one month’s time. In that short period, more than 500 independence native princes had to decide which nation they would join. The administration of the courts, the military, the railway, and the police – the whole of the civil service – had to be divided down to the last paper clip. Most difficult of all, millions of Indian citizens – Hindus, Muslims, and yet another significant religious groups, the Sikhs – had to decide where to go. During the summer of 1947, 10 million people were on the move in the Indian subcontinent. As people scrambled to relocate, violence among the different religious groups erupted. Muslims killed Sikhs who were moving into India. Hindus and Sikhs killed Muslims who were headed into Pakistan. In all, an estimated 1 million died. “What is there to celebrate? ” Gandhi mourned. “I see nothing but rivers of blood. ” Gandhi personally went to the Indian capital of Delhi to plead for fair treatment of Muslim refugees. While there, he himself became a victim of the nation’s violence. A Hindu extremist who thought Gandhi too protective of Muslims shot and killed him on January 30, 1948. Closure Question #1: Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to the future of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence)

Jawaharlal Nehru / Indira Gandhi l Jawaharlal Nehru – Leader of Independent India from 1950 to 1965; India refused to align itself with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War. l Indira Gandhi – Nehru’s daughter (not Mohandis Gandhi’s), Indira Gandhi served as prime minister of India, serving from 1966 to 1984. l l l As British rule ended in India, India’s Muslims and Hindus were bitterly divided. India’s leaders decided to create two countries, one Hindu (India) and one Muslim (Pakistan). Pakistan would have two regions: West Pakistan and East Pakistan. When India and Pakistan became independent on August 15, 1947, Hindus moved toward India; Muslims, toward Pakistan. More than one million people were killed in the mass migrations. One of the dead was well known. On January 30, 1948, a Hindu militant assassinated Mohandas Gandhi as he was going to morning prayer. Having worked closely with Gandhi for Indian independence, Jawaharlal Nehru led the Congress Party, formerly the Indian National Congress. The popular prime minister had strong ideas about India’s future. He admired British political institutions and the socialist ideals of the British Labour Party. His goal was parliamentary government and a moderate socialist economy. Under Nehru, the state took ownership of major industries, utilities, and transportation. Private enterprise was permitted at the local level, and farming was left in private hands. Industrial production almost tripled between 1950 and 1965. Nehru also guided India’s foreign policy through the principle of nonalignment. After Nehru’s death, the Congress Party selected his daughter, Indira Gandhi, as prime minister. In the 1950 s and 1960 s, India’s population grew by 2% a year, contributing to widespread poverty. Millions lived in vast city slums. Indian society grouped people into castes, or social classes. The caste into which people were born largely determined their occupation and role in society. The system assured that the lowest castes would remain in poverty. Although caste-based discrimination is illegal in India today, it continues, especially in the countryside. Closure Question #2: How did religious and cultural differences create problems for newly emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence)

Benazir Bhutto l The daughter of a former Pakistani dictator, Bhutto was twice elected prime minister of Pakistan in the 1980 s and 1990 s. Following independence, Muslim Pakistan has repeatedly suffered through civil wars and military coups. After the 9/11 attacks on the United States, the Pakistani government became a key American ally in the fight against terrorism; however, opposition to the American-Pakistani alliance is strong. Bhutto was assassinated in 2007. l From the beginning, the two regions of Pakistan experienced strained relations. While East Pakistan had the larger population, it was often ignored by West Pakistan, home to the central government. In 1970, a giant cyclone and tidal wave struck East Pakistan and killed an estimated 266, 000 residents. While international aid poured into Pakistan, the government in West Pakistan did not quickly transfer that aid to East Pakistan. Demonstrations broke out in East Pakistan, and protesters called for an end to all ties with West Pakistan. On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan declared itself an independent nation called Bangladesh. A civil war followed between Bangladesh and Pakistan. Eventually, Indian forces stepped in and sided with Bangladesh. Pakistan forces surrendered. More than 1 million people died in the war. Pakistan lost about one-seventh of its area and about one-half of its population to Bangladesh. Closure Question #2: How did religious and cultural differences create problems for newly emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence)

Ferdinand Marcos l President of the Philippines from 1966 to 1986. Marcos was forced to flee the country on charges of corruption and involvement in the killing of Benigno Aquino, a popular opposition leader. Despite being a democracy, the government of the Philippines remains unstable due to threats of Islamic terrorism and natural disasters. l l The Philippines became the first of the world’s colonies to achieve independence following World War II. The United States granted the Philippines independence in 1946, on the anniversary of its own Declaration of Independence, the Fourth of July. The Filipinos’ immediate goals were to rebuild the economy and to restore the capital of Manila. The city had been badly damaged in World War II. The United States had promised the Philippines $620 million in war damages. However, the U. S. government insisted that Filipinos approve the Bell Act in order to get the money. This act would establish free trade between the United States and the Philippines for eight years, to be followed by gradually increasing tariffs. Filipinos were worried that American businesses would exploit the resources and environment of the Philippines. In spite of this concern, Filipinos approved the Bell Act and received their money. In the Philippines, two presidents have been forced out of office in recent years. In 1986, a public uprising forced Ferdinand Marcos to flee the country on charges of corruption and involvement in the killing of a popular opposition leader, Benigno Aquino. Corazon Aquino, wife of the murdered leader, became president in 1986. Charges of corruption led to the ousting of another Filipino leader in 2001. The new leader, Gloria Arroyo, promised greater integrity in government. She faced an economy weakened by a global economic crisis. Terrorism remains a challenge for the Philippines. Muslim rebels on the island of Mindanao, for example, have used terror to promote their demands for independence. Closure Question #3: What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma? (At least 2 sentences)

Corazon Aquino l Benigno Aquino’s widow who, in the election of 1986, ran for President of the Philippines in her husband’s place. Aquino won the election decisively, but Marcos refused to acknowledge her victory. When he declared himself the official winner, a public outcry resulted. He was forced into exile in Hawaii, where he later died. During Aquino’s presidency, the Philippine government ratified a new constitution and negotiated successfully with the United States to end the lease on U. S. military bases in the Philippines. l l The United States wanted to maintain its military presence in the Philippines. With the onset of the Cold War, the United States needed to protect its interests in Asia. Both China and the Soviet Union were rivals of the United States at the time. Both were Pacific powers with bases close to allies of the United States and to resources vital to U. S. interests. Therefore, the United States demanded a 99 -year lease on its military and naval bases in the Philippines. The bases, Clark Air Force Base and Subic Bay Naval Base near Manila, proved to be critical to the United States later in the staging of the Korean and Vietnam wars. These military bases also became the single greatest source of conflict between the United States and the Philippines. Many Filipinos regarded the bases as proof of American imperialism. Later agreements shortened the terms of the lease, and the United States gave up both bases in 1992. After World War II, the Philippine government was still almost completely dependent on the United States economically and politically. The Philippine government looked for ways to lessen this dependency. It welcomed Japanese investments. It also broadened its contacts with Southeast Asian neighbors and with nonaligned nations. Closure Question #3: What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma? (At least 2 sentences)

l Leader of the democratic movement in Myanmar (formerly Burma). The daughter a general who led the fight for Myanmar’s independence in 1947, Suu Kyi was educated abroad and, after returning to Myanmar in 1988, became involved in politics. Her party won the national elections in 1990, but the military rulers refused to hand over power, putting Suu Kyi under house arrest, where she remains today. l Today, Burma is the independent nation called Myanmar. The people of Myanmar continue to fight for democracy. Leading the struggle is Aung San Suu Kyi, the daugher of Aung San, who led the Burma Independence Army in 1947. Educated abroad, Suu Kyi returned to Myanmar in 1988 and became involved in the movement for democracy. Her party won a landslide victory in 1990, but the military rulers refused to hand over power. Instead, they placed Suu Kyi under house arrest, where she remains. Although the Myanmar government said she was free to leave the country, Suu Kyi knew that if she left, even to be with her husband who was dying of cancer in England in 1999, she would never be allowed to reenter. She stayed to promote democracy. Closure Question #3: What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma? (At least 2 sentences)

Sukarno / Suharto l Sukarno – The key leader of the Indonesian independence movement; A Dutch colony prior to WWII, and occupied by Japan during the war, Indonesia proclaimed its independence in August 1945 and Sukarno proclaimed himself president. The Dutch attempted to regain control, but after losing support from the United Nations and the United States, the Dutch agreed to grant Indonesia its independence in 1949. l Suharto – Indonesian military leader who, in response to an attempted coup against the government in 1965, seized power for himself and turned Indonesia into a police state. During Suharto’s reign, nearly 1 million Indonesians were killed while bribery and corruption became commonplace. l The economy improved under Suharto for a while but from 1997 through 1998 the nation suffered one of the worst financial crises in its history. Growing unrest over both government repression and a crippling economic crisis prompted Suharto to step down in 1998. While turmoil continued to grip the country, it moved slowly toward democracy. The daughter of Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri, was elected to the presidency in 2001. Sukarnoputri faces enormous challenges, including a fragile economy, ethnic strife, security problems, and government corruption. Closure Question #3: What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma? (At least 2 sentences)

Closure Assignment #1 l 1. 2. 3. Answer the following questions based on what you have learned about South and Southeast Asian nations struggle for democracy in the late 20 th century: Why might India’s political and economic success be so crucial to the future of democracy in Asia? (At least 1 sentence) How did religious and cultural differences create problems for newly emerging nations? (At least 1 sentence) What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma? (At least 2 sentences)

Negritude Movement l A movement to celebrate African culture, heritage, and values; Prior to World War II, a growing sense of black consciousness and pride in traditional Africa manifested itself in colonial Africa and wherever individuals of African descent could be found worldwide. l l Throughout the first half of the 20 th century, Africa resembled little more than a European outpost. As you recall, the nations of Europe had marched in during the late 1800 s and colonized much of the continent. Like the diverse groups living in Asia, however, the many different peoples of Africa were unwilling to return to colonial domination after World War II. And so, in the decades following the great global conflict, they, too, won their independence from foreign rule and went to work building new nations. The African push for independence actually began in the decades before World War II with the Negritude Movement. When World War II erupted, African soldiers fought alongside Europeans to “defend freedom”. This experience made them unwilling to accept colonial domination when they returned home. The war had changed the thinking of Europeans too. Many began to question the cost, as well as the morality, of maintaining colonies abroad. These and other factors helped African colonies gain their freedom throughout the 1950 s and 1960 s. Closure Question #1: Why do you think revolution swept so many African nations following their independence from European rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Kwame Nkrumah / Jomo Kenyatta l Kwame Nkrumah – Leader of Ghana, the first British colony in Africa to gain its independence. Ghana officially declared its freedom in 1957. l Jomo Kenyatta - Formerly a British colony, Kenya gained its independence in 1963 and elected Jomo Kenyatta as its first president. Kenyatta was a strong believer in democracy and Western-style capitalism, supporting the growth of private businesses in his country. l After World War II, Europeans realized that colonial rule in Africa would have to end. The Charter of the United Nations supported this belief. It stated that all colonial peoples should have the right to self-determination. In the late 1950 s and 1960 s, most African nations achieved independence. In 1957 the Gold Coast, renamed Ghana and under Kwame Nkrumah, was the first British colony to gain independence. Nigeria, the Belgian Congo (renamed Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo), Kenya, and others soon followed. Seventeen new African nations emerged in 1960. Another 11 nations followed between 1961 and 1965. The Portuguese finally surrendered Mozambique and Angola in the 1970 s. In North Africa, the French granted full independence to Morocco and Tunisia in 1956. Because Algeria was home to a million French settlers, France chose to keep control there. However, Algerian nationalists began a guerrilla war to liberate their homeland. The French leader, Charles de Gaulle, granted Algeria its independence in 1962. Closure Question #1: Why do you think revolution swept so many African nations following their independence from European rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Ahmed Ben Bella l Leader of the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) and the first president of independent Algeria. ; Beginning 1954 the FLN announced its intention to fight for independence from French rule. The French sent about half a million troops into Algeria to fight the FLN, and atrocities were committed on both sides. In the end the FLN prevailed, and Algeria gained its independence in 1962. l France’s principal overseas colony, Algeria had a population of one million French colonists and nine million Arabs and Berber Muslims. After World War II, the French colonists refused to share political power with the native Algerians. The leader of the FLN, Ahmed Ben Bella, became first president of the newly independent Algeria. He attempted to make Algeria a socialist state, but was overthrown in 1965 by his army commander. From 1965 until 1988, Algerians tried unsuccessfully to modernize and industrialize the nation. Unemployment and dissatisfaction with the government contributed to the rise of religious fundamentalism who wanted to make Algeria an Islamic state. The chief Islamic party, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), won local and parliamentary elections in 1990 and 1991. However, the ruling government and army refused to accept the election results. As a result, a civil war broke out between Islamic militants and the government. The war continues, on and off, to this day. Closure Question #1: Why do you think revolution swept so many African nations following their independence from European rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Mobutu Sese Seko l Ruler of Zaire (Also known as Congo) from 1965 to 1997; Mobutu came to power following years of civil war following the granting of independence to the Congo by Belgium, its previous colonial ruler. Mobutu maintained control through a combination of force, one-party rule, and gifts to supporters, withstanding several armed rebellions. l l Of all the European possessions in Africa, one of the most exploited was the Belgian Congo. Belgium had ruthlessly plundered the colony’s rich resources of rubber and copper. In addition, Belgian officials ruled with a harsh hand provided the population with no social services. They also had made no attempt to prepare the people for independence. Not surprisingly, Belgium’s granting of independence in 1960 to the Congo resulted in upheaval. After years of civil war, an army officer, Colonel Joseph Mobutu, later known as Mobutu Sese Seko, seized power in 1965. For 32 years, Mobutu successfully withstood several armed rebellions. He was finally overthrown in 1997 by rebel leader Laurent Kabila after months of civil war. Shortly thereafter, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of Congo. On becoming president, Kabila promised a transition to democracy and free elections by April 1999. Such elections never came. By 2000 the nation endured another round of civil war, as three separate rebel groups sought to overthrown Kabila’s autocratic rule. In January 2001, a bodyguard assassinated Kabila. His son, Joseph Kabila, took power and began a quest for peace. IN 2002, the government signed peace deals with rebel groups and neighboring countries. In 2006, Kabila was elected president under a new constitution. Closure Question #2: How did the way in which European colonialists carved up Africa in the 1800 s lead to civil strife in many new African nations? (At least 1 sentence)

Anwar Sadat / Golda Meir l Anwar el-Sadat – Egyptian President following the death of Nasser in 1970; Angered by the Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula and the West Bank, el-Sadat and Syrian leaders organized a surprise attack on Israel in 1973. Though initially successful, the Egyptian army was pushed back and would have been destroyed were it not for a UNnegotiated cease-fire. l Golda Meir – Israeli Prime Minister during the Yom Kippur War. Born in Kiev, Russia, Meir’s family moved to Wisconsin when she was a young girl. She moved to Palestine prior to World War II and served as Israel’s first diplomat to the Soviet Union before being asked to serve as Prime Minister in 1969. l l On October 6, 1973 (the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur), Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated surprise attack against Israel. Golda Meir, Israel’s prime minister, had little time to mobilize troops. For the first two days of the Yom Kippur War, Israel was on the defensive. Then the tide turned. Israeli forces pushed into Egypt, trapping Egypt’s Third Army. A UN-negotiated cease-fire on October 22 saved the Egyptian army from destruction. An agreement in 1974 officially ended the conflict, but the dispute over the occupied territories remained. Meanwhile, however, the war was having indirect results in Western nations. In 1960, several Arab oilproducing states had formed OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, to control the price of oil. During the Yom Kippur War, some OPEC nations announced large increases in the price of oil to foreign countries. The price hikes, coupled with cuts in oil production, led to oil shortages and serious economic problems in the West. Closure Question #2: How did the way in which European colonialists carved up Africa in the 1800 s lead to civil strife in many new African nations? (At least 1 sentence)

PLO / Yasir Arafat l Yasir Arafat – Political leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a group which believed that only the Palestinian Arabs should have a state in the Palestine region. Arafat lead a terrorist movement called al-Fatah which, during the 1980 s and 1990 s, launched attacks on Israeli territory. l l In 1964 the Egyptians took the lead in forming the PLO to represent Palestinian interests. The PLO believed that only the Palestinian Arabs should have a state in the Palestine region. At the same time, a guerrilla movement called al. Fatah, headed by the PLO political leader Yasir Arafat, began to launch terrorist attacks on Israeli territory. During the 1980 s, Palestinian Arabs, frustrated by their failure to achieve self-rule, grew more militant. Finally, in the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993, Israel and the PLO agreed that the PLO would control a semi-independent area. In return, the PLO recognized the Israeli state. In 1994 Jordan and Israel signed a peace treaty. This treaty made Jordan the second Arab nation, after Egypt, to recognize Israel. Even with these changes, little progress was made toward Palestinian statehood. Some Israelis did not want to give up the occupied territories, and some Palestinians did not accept the state of Israel. In the wake of the Palestinian rejection of a proposal offered by Israel at a meeting arranged by President Clinton at Camp David in 2000, a second intifada erupted and has continued. Suicide bombings in the heart of Israel led to Israeli reoccupation of significant areas of the West Bank that had been largely controlled by the Palestinian Authority. Nonetheless, a sign of progress emerged in 2003 – the Israeli cabinet formally accepted the principle of a Palestinian state. Closure Question #2: How did the way in which European colonialists carved up Africa in the 1800 s lead to civil strife in many new African nations? (At least 1 sentence)

Camp David Accords l Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt which was facilitated by American President Jimmy Carter in 1977 and signed in 1979. The Accords ended 30 years of hostilities between Egypt and Israel and became the first signed agreement between Israel and an Arab country. For his role in the negotiations, Carter won the Nobel Peace Prize. l l In November 1977, just four years after the Yom Kippur war, Anwar Sadat stunned the world by extending a hand to Israel. No Arab country up to this point had recognized Israel’s right to exist. In a dramatic gesture, Sadat went before the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, and invited his one-time enemies to join him in a quest for peace. Sadat emphasized that in exchange for peace Israel would have to recognize the rights of Palestinians. Furthermore, it would have to withdraw from territory seized in 1967 from Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. U. S. President Jimmy Carter recognized that Sadat had created a historic opportunity for peace. In 1978, Carter invited Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin to Camp David, the presidential retreat in rural Maryland. Isolated from the press and from domestic political pressures, Sadat and Begin worked to reach an agreement. After 13 days of negotiations, Carter triumphantly announced that Egypt recognized Israel as a legitimate state. In exchange, Israel agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. While world leaders praised Sadat, his peace initiative enraged many Arab countries. In 1981, a group of Muslim extremists assassinated him. However, Egypt’s new leader, Hosni Mubarak, has worked to maintain peace with Israel.

Intifada / Oslo Peace Accords l Intifada – Uprising; During the 1980 s Palestinian Arabs led an uprising in the territories on the West Bank which had been controlled by Israel since 1967. The intifada took the form of boycotts, demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers, and rock throwing by unarmed teenagers. l Oslo Peace Accords (1993) – In secret talks conducted in Norway, Israel and the PLO agreed that the PLO would control a semiindependent area in Palestine in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, beginning with the town of Jericho. l l One Arab group that continued to clash with the Israelis was the Palestinians, a large number of whom lived in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip – lands controlled by Israel. During the 1970 s and 1980 s, the military wing of the PLO conducted a campaign against Israel responded forcefully, bombing suspected rebel bases in Palestinian towns. In 1982, the Israeli army invaded Lebanon in an attempt to destroy stronghold in Palestinian villages. The Israeli’s became involved in Lebanon’s civil war and were forced to withdraw. In 1987, Palestinians began to express their frustrations in a widespread campaign of civil disobedience called the intifada. Israel, under the leadership of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, agreed to grant the Palestinians self-rule under the Oslo Peace Accords. The difficulty of making the agreement work was demonstrated by the assassination of Rabin in 1995. He was killed by a right-wing Jewish extremist who opposed concessions to the Palestinians. Rabin was succeeded as prime minister by Benjamin Netanyahu, who had opposed the Oslo Accords. Still, Netanyahu made efforts to keep to the agreement. In January 1997, Netanyahu met with Arafat to work out plans for a partial Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank. Closure Question #3: Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed? (At least 1 sentence)

Transcaucasian Republics l The nations of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia which lie in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. These nations gained independence following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Each has struggled economically and are some of the poorest countries in the world. l l For thousands of years, the different peoples of Central Asia suffered invasions and domination by powerful groups such as the Mongols, Byzantines, Ottomans, and finally the Communist rulers of the Soviet Union. While such occupation brought many changes to this region, its various ethnic groups worked to keep alive much of their culture. They also longed to create nations of their own, a dream they realized in the early 1990 s with the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the decade since then, however, these groups have come to know the challenges of building strong and stable independent nations. In 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed, and the republics that it had conquered emerged as 15 independent nations. Among them were those that had made up the Soviet empire’s southern borders. Geographers often group these new nations into two geographic areas: The Transcaucasian Republics and the Central Asian Republics. Since gaining independence these nations have struggled economically. Much of the problem stems from their heavy reliance on the Soviet Union for economic help. Closure Question #3: Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed? (At least 1 sentence)

Central Asian Republics l Five nations located east of the Caspian Sea and extending to the Tian Shan and Pamir Mountains. They are Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikstan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyztan. Under Soviet rule in the region farmers were required to grow cotton. Dependence on this single crop has hurt the development of a balanced economy in these nations. However, today these nations are working hard to tap their large reserves of oil and natural gas while diversifying their economies. l l Fighting among various ethnic and religious groups has created another obstacle to stability for many of the newly independent countries of Central Asia. The region is home to a number of different peoples, including some with long histories of hostility toward each other. With their iron-fisted rule, the Soviets kept a lid on these hostilities and largely prevented any serious ethnic clashes. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, however, long-simmering ethnic rivalries erupted into fighting. Some even became small regional wars. Such was the case in Azerbaijan. Within the mostly Muslim country lies Nagorno-Karabakh, a small region of mainly Armenian Christians. In the wake of the Soviet Union’s collapse, the people of this area declared their independence. Azerbaijan had no intention of letting go of this land, and fighting quickly broke out. Neighboring Armenia rushed to aid the Armenian people in the district. The war raged from 1991 through 1994, when the two sides agree to a cease fire. As of 2007, the status of Nagorno-Karabakh remained unresolved. Closure Question #3: Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed? (At least 1 sentence)

Mujahideen / Taliban l Mujahideen – Afghan opposition forces to the Soviet-supported communist government of Afghanistan in the 1970 s and 1980 s. In 1979 the Soviet Union sent troops into Afghanistan to put down the Mujahideen rebellion. Afghan rebels used the land guerilla tactics to their advantage and, with financial assistance from the United States, succeeded in pushing Soviet forces out in 1989. l Taliban – Conservative Islamic group which gained control of Afghanistan in the aftermath of the Soviet-Afghan War. While the Taliban brought order to Afghanistan, it also applied extreme interpretations of Islamic law to nearly every aspect of Afghan society. Taliban leaders kept women from going to school or holding jobs and banned everything from television to modern music. The Taliban also provided refuge to terrorist groups, allowing Al Qaeda to establish training camps within its borders. Closure Question #3: Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed? (At least 1 sentence)

Closure Assignment #2 l 1. 2. 3. Answer the following questions based on what you have learned about Africa and the Middle East’s struggle for democracy in the late 20 th century: Why do you think revolution swept so many African nations following their independence from European rule? (At least 1 sentence) How did the way in which European colonialists carved up Africa in the 1800 s lead to civil strife in many new African nations? (At least 1 sentence) Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed? (At least 1 sentence)

Brasilia / Land Reform l Brasilia – Capital City of Brazil built under the direction Juscelino Kubitschek, President from 1956 to 1961. Kubitschek built the city using borrowed money from the United States and Europe and, as a result, foreign debt soared and inflation shot up. l Land Reform – Breaking up large estates and distributing that land to peasants; Conservative Brazilian politicians opposed land reform. In 1964, with the blessing of conservative, wealthy Brazilians, the army seized power in a military coup. l l The largest, both geographically and in population, in Latin America; Following WWII Brazil experienced severe economic problems, leading the military to seize control in 1964. The military stayed in power until 1985, leading economic growth which benefited the military but left the majority of Brazilians in poverty. Like other Latin American countries, Brazil experienced severe economic problems following World War II. When democratically elected governments proved unable to solve these problems, the military stepped in and seized control in 1964. The armed forces remained in direct control of the country for the next 20 years. The military set a new economic direction, reducing government interference in the economy and stressing freemarket forces. Beginning in 1968, the new policies seemed to be working. Brazil experienced an “economic miracle” as its economy grew spectacularly. Ordinary Brazilians benefited little from this economic growth. Furthermore, rapid development led to an inflation rate of 100% per year. Overwhelmed, the military leadership retreated and opened the door to a return to democracy in 1985. The new democratic government faced enormous obstacles: massive foreign debt and an inflation rate of 800% in 1987. In the 1990 s, democratic presidents restored some stability to the economy, but the gap between rich and poor remained wide. Dissatisfaction with this gap helped to elect Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva in 2002. Lula, Brazil’s first left-wing president in four decades, has pursued a mission of making Brazil more independent in global trade. His challenges are to generate employment and decrease the foreign debt. Closure Question #1: What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence)

Standard of Living / Recession l Standard of Living – Level of Material Comfort which is judged by the amount of goods people have. Under the leadership of military dictators, though foreign investment and projects in the Amazon jungle increased, Brazil experienced a decline in its standard of living as the government froze wages and cut back on social programs. l Recession – Slowdown in the economy; By the early 1980 s Brazil experienced a recession, leading the generals who governed the nation to open up the political system, allowing direct elections of local, state, and national officials. l l In 1985, a new civilian president, Jose Sarney, took office. Sarney inherited a country in crisis because of foreign debt and inflation. He proved unable to solve the country’s problems and lost support. The next elected president fared even worse. He resigned because of corruption charges. In 1994 and again in 1998, Brazilians elected Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who achieved some success in tackling the nation’s economic and political problems. Although trained as a Marxist scholar, Cardoso became a strong advocate of free markets. One of his main concerns was the widening income gap in Brazil. He embarked on a program to promote economic reform. In the presidential election of October 2002, Cardoso’s handpicked successor to lead his centrist coalition was Jose Serra faced two candidates who proposed a sharp break with Cardoso’s pro-business policies. These candidates included Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, a candidate of the leftist Workers Party. An economic crisis hit many countries in South America, including Brazil, in 2002. Because of stalled economic growth, rising unemployment, and poverty, there was a backlash against free-market economic policies. This made the election of 2002 a close contest. Da Silva, the leftist candidate, won the hotly disputed election, defeating the ruling party candidate, Serra. Da Silva has proved a more moderate president than his supporters and opponents had expected. Although Brazil faces many challenges, it continues on the path of democracy. Closure Question #1: What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence)

Institutional Revolutionary Party l After the Mexican Revolution in the 1910 s, the PRI was the dominant political party in Mexico until the year 2000. Every six years, leaders of the PRI chose the party’s presidential candidate, who was then elected by the people. During the 1950 s and 1960 s, steady economic growth led to real gains in wages in Mexico. At the end of the 1960 s, students began to protest Mexico’s one-party government system. On October 2, 1968, university students gathered in Mexico City to protest government policies. Police forces opened fire and killed hundreds. l The next two presidents, Luis Echeverria and Jose Lopez Portillo, made political reforms and new political parties emerged. Greater freedom of debate in the press and universities was allowed. Carlos Salinas de Gortari sped up privatization to relieve the debt crisis. He also changed some restrictive trade regulations in order to attract more foreign investors. In 1992, de Gortari began working with the U. S. president and the Canadian prime minister to form the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). That agreement went into effect in 1994. NAFTA did not cure Mexico’s economic problems, however. The continuing debt crisis, rising unemployment, and corruption scandals increased dissatisfaction with the government. Support for the PRI dropped. In 2000, Vicente Fox defeated the PRI candidate for the presidency. Fox’s election ended more than seven decades of PRI rule. Fox’s successor, Felipe de Jesus Calderon, continued with plans to boost Mexico’s economic growth. Closure Question #1: What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence)

Federal System l A governmental system in which power is shared between state governments and a central authority. After winning its independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria adopted a federal system. Three states were established, one for each of its three major ethnic groups: The Hausa-Fulani (Mostly Muslim), and the Yoruba and Igbo (Mostly Christians or Animists). l l When Britain and France gave up their colonies, they left fragile governments in place. Soon problems threatened those governments. Rival ethnic groups often fought for power. Strong militaries became tools for ambitious leaders. In many cases, a military dictatorship replaced democracy. Nigeria, a former British colony, won its independence peacefully in 1960. Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and one of its richest. However, the country was ethnically divided. This soon created problems that led to war. The Hausa-Fulani, who did not trust the Igbo, launched an attack from the north. They persecuted and killed many Igbo. The survivors fled east. In 1967, the Eastern Region seceded from Nigeria, declaring itself the new nation of Biafra. The Nigerian government then went to war to reunite the country. The Igbo were badly outnumbered and outgunned. In 1970, Biafra surrendered. Nigeria was reunited, but perhaps more than a million Igbo died, most from starvation. After the war, Nigerians, returned to the process of nation-building. “When the war ended”, noted one officer, “it was like a referee blowing a whistle in a football game. People just put down their guns and went back to the business of living. ” The Nigerian government did not punish the Igbo. It used federal money to rebuild the Igbo region. Closure Question #2: What are some of the attributes of democracy? (List at least 3)

Martial Law l Temporary military rule; In Nigeria, although one group dominated each state, the states also had ethnic minorities. In the Western Region, non-Yoruba minorities began to resent Yoruba control. In 1963, they tried to break away and form their own region. This led to fighting. In January 1966, a group of army officers, most of them Igbo, seized power in the capital city of Lagos. These officers abolished the regional governments and declared martial law. l l The military governed Nigeria for most of the 1970 s. During this time, Nigerian leaders tried to create a more stable federal system, with a strong central government and a number of regional units. The government also tried to build a more modern economy, based on oil income. In 1979, the military handed power back to civilian rulers. Nigerians were cheered by the return of democracy. Some people, however, remained concerned about ethnic divisions in the nation. Nigerian democracy was short-lived. In 1983, the military overthrew the civilian government, charging it with corruption. A new military regime, dominated by the Hausa -Fulani, took charge. In 1999, Nigerians elected their first civilian president, Olusegun Obasanjo, in nearly 20 years. In 2003, Obasanjo was reelected. Obasanjo was an ethnic Yoruba from southwest Nigeria. As a critic of Nigerian military regimes, he had spent three years in jail (1995 -1998) under Sani Abacha. As a former general, Obasanjo had the support of the military. Obasanjo worked for a strong, unified Nigeria. He made some progress in his battle against corruption. He also attempted to draw the attention of the world to the need for debt relief for Nigera. Obasanjo saw debt relief as essential to the relief of hunger and the future of democracy in Africa. Closure Question #3: What were the main negative effects of the economic policies of European colonizers? (List at least 2 effects)

Dissidents l Government Opponents; In 1993, following the election Moshood Abiola as president of Nigeria, military officers declared the results invalid, and a dictator, General Sani Abacha, took control. General Abacha banned political activity and jailed dissidents. Upon Abacha’s death, in 1999, Nigerians elected their first civilian president in 20 years. Nigeria remains a democracy today. l l In South Africa, racial conflict was the result of colonial rule. From its beginnings under Dutch and British control, South Africa was racially divided. A small white minority ruled a large black majority. In 1910, South Africa gained selfrule as a dominion of the British Empire. In 1931, it became an independent member of the British Commonwealth. Although South Africa had a constitutional government, the constitution gave whites power and denied the black majority its rights. In 1948, the Nationalist Party came to power in South Africa. This party promoted Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism. It also instituted a policy of apartheid, complete separation of the races. The minority government banned social contacts between whites and blacks. It established segregated schools, hospitals, and neighborhoods. In 1959, the minority government set up reserves, called homelands, for the country’s major black groups. Blacks were forbidden to live in white areas unless they worked as servants or laborers for whites. The homelands policy was totally unbalanced. Although blacks made up about 75% of the population, the government set aside only 13% of the land for them. Whites kept the best land. The blacks of South Africa resisted the controls imposed by the white minority. In 1912, they formed the African National Congress (ANC) to fight for their rights. The ANC organized strikes and boycotts to protest racist policies. The government banned the ANC and imprisoned many of its members. One was ANC leader Nelson Mandela. Closure Question #3: What were the main negative effects of the economic policies of European colonizers? (List at least 2 effects)

Closure Assignment #3 l Answer the following questions based on what you have learned about Latin-America and Africa’s struggle for democracy: 1. What have been some of the obstacles to democracy in Latin America? (At least 1 sentence) 2. What are some of the attributes of democracy? (List at least 3) 3. What were the main negative effects of the economic policies of European colonizers? (List at least 2 effects)

Apartheid / Nelson Mandela l Apartheid - Located on the southernmost tip of Africa, whites dominated the political system in South Africa from the 1800 s to the 1970 s, establishing a system of racial segregation known as apartheid (“apartness”). In the 1960 s Black Africans began to protest against apartheid, but were brutally repressed by the white police officers. l Nelson Mandela – Leader of civil rights protests in South Africa during the 1960 s, Mandela spent 26 years in prison. He was released from prison in 1990 and, in 1994, became South Africa’s first black president. l In South Africa, where white dominated the political system, the process was more complicated. Blacks began organizing against white rule and formed the African National Congress (ANC) in 1912. Its goal was economic and political reform. The ANC’s efforts, however, met with little success. At the same time, by the 1950 s, South African whites (descendants of the Dutch, known as Afrikaners) had strengthened the laws separating whites and blacks. The result was a system of racial segregation known as apartheid. Blacks began demonstrating against these laws. The white government brutally repressed the demonstrators. In 1960 police opened fire on people who were leading a peaceful march in Sharpeville, killing 69 people, two-thirds of whom were shot in the back. After the arrest of ANC leader Nelson Mandela in 1962, members of the ANC called for armed resistance to the white government. The African states that achieved independence in the 1950 s, 1960 s, and 1970 s still faced many problems. The leaders of these states, as well as their citizens, dreamed of stable governments and economic prosperity. Many of these dreams have yet to be realized. Most leaders of the newly independent states came from the urban middle class. They had studied in Europe or the United States and knew European languages. They believed in using the Western democratic model in Africa.

Politburo / Mikhail Gorbachev l Politburo – The ruling committee of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev in the 1970 s the Politburo crushed all political disagreement. Censors decided what writers could publish and restricted freedom of speech and worship. l Mikhail Gorbachev- Reformer who, in 1985, became the leader of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s restructuring of the Soviet economy and government combined with his decision to end Soviet support of foreign Communist regimes led to the end of the Cold War in 1989 and the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991. l After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War. Each tried to increase its worldwide influence. The Soviet Union extended its power over much of Eastern Europe. By the 1960 s, it appeared that communism was permanently established in the region. During the 1960 s and 1970 s, the Soviet Union’s Communist leadership kept tight control over the Soviet people. But big changes, including democratic reforms, were on the horizon. The Soviet people welcomed Gorbachev’s election. At 54, he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin. Gorbachev was only a child during Stalin’s ruthless purge of independent-minded party members. Unlike other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev decided to pursue new ideas. Closure Question #1: How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence)

Closure Question #1: How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence) Glasnost / Perestroika l Glasnost – Russian for “New Openness”; Gorbachev met with Reagan 4 times from 1985 to 1989, visiting sites in both countries “like old friends”. Both sides agreed to reduce nuclear arms production, and Gorbachev gradually allowed greater freedoms of speech and press within the Soviet Union. l Perestroika – “Restructuring”; Gorbachev’s reform policy for the Soviet economy and government. Gorbachev established a market economy which allowed some businesses to be privately owned and set up a Soviet parliament and presidency with officials to be elected by the people in 1989. l l The Soviet Union included 92 ethnic groups and 112 different languages. As Gorbachev released the iron grip of the Communist Party, centered in Moscow, old ethnic tensions came to the fore. Nationalist movements began. In 1989 and 1990, calls fro independence came first in Soviet Georgia, and then in Latvia, Estonia, Moldavia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania. The conservative leaders of the traditional Soviet institutions – the army, government, KGB, and military industries – were worried. The breakup of the Soviet Union would end their privileges. On August 19, 1991, a group of these conservative leaders arrested Gorbachev and tried to seize power. The attempt failed, however, when Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, and thousands of Russians bravely resisted the rebel forces in Moscow. The Soviet republics now moved for complete independence. Ukraine voted fro Independence on December 1, 1991. A week later, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus announced that the Soviet Union had “ceased to exist. ” Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991. He turned over his responsibilities as commander in chief to Boris Yeltsin, the new president of Russia. By the end of 1991, one of the largest empires in world history had ended.

Boris Yeltsin l Boris Yeltsin – First president of the Russian Republic following the downfall of the Soviet Union (1991 -1999); Yeltsin attempted to transition Russia’s economy from communism to full free market capitalism while keeping rebellious ethnic groups, such as those in Chechnya, from seceding from the country. Russia defaulted on billions of dollars in debts in 1998, leading Yeltsin to resign as President in 1999, handing power to Vladimir Putin. l l Boris Yeltsin was committed to introducing a free market economy as quickly as possible, but the transition was not easy. Economic hardships and social disarray were made worse by a dramatic rise in organized crime. Another problem Yetlsin faced was in Chechnya, a province in the south that wanted to secede from Russia and become independent. Yeltsin used brutal force against the Chechens to keep the province as part of Russia. Yeltsin also dealt with former Soviet states like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic who wanted to join NATO. Yeltsin opposed their wishes. However, in the 1990 s these countries eventually succeeded in joining NATO. At the end of 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was replaced by Vladimir Putin, who was elected president in 2000. Putin, a former KGB officer, was widely seen as someone who wanted to keep a tight rein on government power. In July 2001, Putin launched reforms to boost growth and budget revenues. The reforms included the free sale and purchase of land tax cuts. Putin has also applied for Russia’s admission to the World Trade Organization and has worked out a special partnership with the European Union. In spite of these changes, the business climate remains somewhat uncertain, and this has stifled foreign investment. Closure Question #1: How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence)

Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) CIS l A loose federation of former Soviet territories; In 1991, following a failed coup by Soviet military leaders to regain control of the country, Boris Yeltsin met with leaders 15 republics which had declared their independence from the Soviet Union. These nations formed the CIS, signaling the death of the Soviet Union. l l Since Putin’s reforms, Russia has experienced a budget surplus and a growing economy. Russia can attribute a large part of its economic growth to its oil and gas exports. The country has an estimated 6% of the world’s oil deposits and about 30% of the world’s natural gas deposits. In fact, Russia’s energy wealth and control over export pipelines have made the country quite powerful. Increasingly, Russia has used its supplies of oil and gas as a political lever to wield power over former Soviet states and to influence world energy prices. For example, in 2006, Russia raised gas prices by about 100% for Ukraine, whose democratic government it opposed. A trans-Siberian oil pipeline, planned for 2008, will make Asia more dependent on Russian oil. Even though it has made economic gains, Russia still faces some challenges. Rising alcoholism, criminal activities, and the decline of the traditional family system give Russians concern. Putin has tried to deal with these problems by centralizing his control over the government. Some observers have raised concerns that Putin grants even more influence to government forces that desire to reassert state control over the economy. Other challenges for Russia are the ongoing turmoil in Chechnya and terrorism. In 2002 Chechen terrorists took about 600 Russians hostage in a Moscow theater. Between 2002 and 2004, terrorist attacks in Russia killed an estimated 500 people. Chechen rebels seized a school in the town of Beslan in 2004. When Russian troops moved in to end the siege, more than 300 died. Many were young schoolchildren. Although Russian troops killed the Chechen leader in 2006, the remaining insurgents have continued terrorist attacks in the North Caucasus region. Putin has refused to negotiate with Chechen rebels.

Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) “SHOCK THERAPY” l An abrupt shift to free-market economics which took place in Russia under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin in the early 1990 s. Yeltsin lowered trade barriers, removed price controls, and ended subsidies to stateowned industries. As a result of these changes, between 1992 and 1994 the inflation rate in Russia averaged 800%, factories that had been sponsored by the communist government were forced to shut down, and hundreds of thousands of people lost their jobs. l Boris Yeltsin was raised in poverty. For 10 years, his family had lived in a single room. As a youth, Yeltsin earned good grades but behaved badly. Mikhail Gorbachev named him party boss and mayor of Moscow in 1985. Yeltsin’s outspokenness got him into trouble. At one meeting, he launched into a bitter speech criticizing conservatives for working against perestroika. Gorbachev fired him for the sake of party unity. Yeltsin made a dramatic comeback and won a seat in parliament in 1989. Parliament elected him president of Russia in 1990 and voters reelected him in 1991. Due at least in part to his failing health (heart problems), Yeltsin resigned in 1999. As president of the large Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin was the most powerful man in Eastern Europe. He faced many problems, including an ailing economy, tough political opposition, and an unpopular war. Yeltsin announced his retirement on New Year’s Eve of 2000. During his speech to the Russian people, he expressed remorse for the hardship his polices had caused.

Solidarity / Lech Walesa l Lech Walesa – Organizer and leader of the Polish national trade union Solidarity in 1980; Walesa gained the support of workers and the Roman Catholic church, and even when he was arrested his movement continued. In 1990, Walesa was elected President of democratic Poland. l Workers’ protests led to demands for change in Poland. In 1980, a worker named Lech Walesa organized Solidarity, a national trade union. Solidarity gained the support of the workers and of the Roman Catholic Church, which was under the leadership of Pope John Paul II, the first Polish pope. Even when Walesa was arrested, the movement continued. Finally, in 1988, the Polish regime agreed to free parliamentary elections – the first free elections in Eastern Europe in 40 years. A new government was elected, ending 45 years of Communist rule. In December 1990, Walesa was chosen as president. Poland’s new path, however, was not easy. Rapid free-market reforms led to severe unemployment and popular discontent. Aleksander Kwasniewski, who succeeded Walesa, continued Poland’s move toward an increasingly prosperous free-market economy. Current president Lech Kaczynski is emphasizing the need to combine modernization with tradition. l In 1976, Wałęsa lost his job in Gdańsk Shipyard. In June 1978, he joined the illegal underground Free Trade Unions of the Coast (Wolne Związki Zawodowe Wybrzeża), organized by Bogdan Borusewicz, Andrzej Gwiazda, Krzysztof Wyszkowski, Lech Kaczyński, Anna Walentynowicz, Antoni Sokołowski, and others. On 14 August 1980, after the beginning of an occupational strike in the Lenin Shipyard of Gdańsk, Wałęsa became the leader of this strike. The strike was spontaneously followed by similar strikes, first in Gdańsk, and then across Poland. In September that year, the Communist government signed an agreement with the Strike Coordination Committee to allow legal organization, but not actual free trade unions. The Strike Coordination Committee legalized itself into National Coordination Committee of Solidarność (Solidarity) Free Trade Union, and Wałęsa was chosen as a chairman of this Committee. Wałęsa kept this position until 13 December 1981, when he was arrested. General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared a state of martial law on 13 December. Wałęsa was incarcerated for 11 months in eastern Poland in several villages (Chylice, Otwock and Arłamów near the Soviet border) until 14 November 1982. Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence)

Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) Reunification l October 3, 1990 – Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, the communist government of East Germany rapidly weakened and opened its western border. Thousands of East Germans fled to West Germany or protested against Communism, finally going so far as to tear down parts of the Berlin Wall. With the complete collapse of the East Germany government, the government of West Germany announced the unification of the country to form one Germany. l l Erich Honecker, head of the Communist Party in East Germany, ruled harshly. While many East Germans fled their country, others led mass demonstrations against the regime in 1989. Before the Berlin Wall was built, thousands of East Berliners fled to the West for the opportunities it had to offer. The East German government built the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stem this economic loss. The wall separated family members and friends for decades, and it became a symbol of Communist tyranny. On November 9, 1989, in response to mass protests, East Germany’s Communist rulers opened the wall’s gates. Soon after crowds began to climb the wall and to tear it down. When Germany was reunified in 1990, Chancellor Helmut Kohl promised a transformation of the East that would take place within four years. However, it became apparent that rebuilding the East German economy could take many decades and have a high cost. Despite these challenges, all Germans now enjoy the same political freedoms as one nation. Communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu ruled Romania with an iron grip, using secret police to crush all dissent. Nonetheless, opposition grew. His economic policies led to a sharp drop in living standards. Food shortages caused rationing. His bulldozing of entire villages to further urbanization plans angered the Romanian people. One incident ignited the flames of revolution. In December 1989, the secret police murdered thousands of people who were peacefully demonstrating. Finally, the army refused to support any more repression. Ceausescu and his wife were captured and executed. A new government was quickly formed. Former Communists dominated the government until 1996. The current president, Traian Basescu, leads a country that is just beginning to show economic growth and the rise of a middle class.

Closure Question #2: In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) Ethnic Cleansing l The practice of using violence and forced emigration to remove a specific group of people from a region; In 1992, after the breakup of communist Yugoslavia, the Serbian military implemented ethnic cleansing against Bosnian Muslims living in Serb-held lands. l l Ethnic conflict plagued Yugoslavia. This country, formed after World War I, had eight major ethnic groups – Serbs, Croats, Muslims, Slovenes, Macedonians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Montenegrins. Ethnic and religious differences dating back centuries caused these groups to view one another with suspicion. After World War II, Yugoslavia became a federation of six republics. Each republic had a mixed population. Josip Tito, who led Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980, held the country together. After Tito’s death, ethnic resentments boiled over. Serbian leader Solobodan Milosevic asserted leadership over Yugoslavia. Many Serbs opposed Milosevic and his policies and fled the country. Two republics, Slovenia and Croatia, declared independence. In June 1991, the Serbian-led Yugoslav army invaded both republics. After months of bloody fighting, both republics freed themselves from Serbian rule. Early in 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina joined Slovenia and Croatia in declaring independence. In April, Serbia and Montenegro formed a new Yugoslavia. ) Bosnia’s population included Muslims (44%), Serbs (31%), and Croats (17%). While Bosnia’s Muslims and Croats backed independence, Bosnian Serbs strongly opposed it. Supported by Serbia, the Bosnian Serbs launched a war in March 1992. By 1995 the Serbian military controlled 70% of Bosnia. In December of that year, leaders of the three factions involved in the war signed a UN- and U. S. -brokered peace treaty. In September 1996, Bosnians elected a three-person presidency, one leader from each ethnic group. By 2001, Bosnia and Herzegovina began to stand on its own without as much need for supervision by the international community.

Zhou Enlai l Chinese premier and chief adviser to Mao Zedong from 1949 to 1976. Worried by China’s isolation from the world, Zhou began to send out signals that he was willing to form ties to the West. In 1971 he startled the world by inviting an American table-tennis team to tour China, beginning a new era in Chinese-American relations. In 1979, the United States and China established diplomatic relations. l l The trend toward democracy around the world also affected China to a limited degree. A political reform movement arose in the late 1980 s. It built on economic reforms begun earlier in the decade. However, although the leadership of the Communist Party in China generally supported economic reform, it opposed political reform. China’s Communist government clamped down on the political reformers. At the same time, it maintained a firm grip on power in the country. After the Communists came to power in China in 1949, Mao Zedong set out to transform China. Mao believed that peasant equality, revolutionary spirit, and hard work were all that was needed to improve the Chinese economy. However, lack of modern technology damaged Chinese efforts to increase agricultural and industrial output. In addition, Mao’s policies stifled economic growth. He eliminated incentives for higher production. He tried to replace family life with life in the communes. These policies took away peasants’ motive to work for the good of themselves and their families. Facing economic disaster, some Chinese Communists talked of modernizing the economy. Accusing them of “taking the capitalist road”, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in 1966 to cleanse China of antirevolutionary influences. Instead of saving radical communism, however, the Cultural Revolution turned many people against it. Closure Question #3: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Deng Xiaoping l Following the deaths of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai in 1976, Deng Xiaoping led a group of practical-minded reformers to seize power and end Mao’s cultural revolution. Deng called for the Four Modernizations. l Both Mao and Zhou died in 1976. Shortly afterward, moderates took control of the Communist Party. They jailed several of the radicals who had led the Cultural Revolution. By 1980, Deng Xiaoping had emerged as the most powerful leader in China. He was the last of the “old revolutionaries” who had ruled China since 1949. Although a lifelong Communist, Deng boldly supported moderate economic policies. Unlike Mao, he was willing to use capitalist ideas to help China’s economy. He embraced a set of goals known as the Four Modernizations. These called for progress in agriculture, industry, defense, and science and technology. Deng launched an ambitious program of economic reforms. l Despite these achievements, many people complained that Deng Xiaoping’s program had not achieved a fifth modernization – democracy. People could not directly criticize the Communist Party. Those who called for democracy were often sentenced to long terms in prison. The problem began to intensify in the late 1980 s. More Chinese began to study abroad, and they learned more about the West. That information reached more educated people inside the country. As the economy prospered, students and other groups believed that they could ask for better living conditions and greater freedom. Students, in particular, wanted more freedom to choose jobs after they graduated. In the late 1980 s, rising inflation led to growing discontent among salaried workers, especially in the cities. Corruption and special treatment for officials and party members led to increasing criticism as well. In May 1989, student protesters called for an end to the corruption and demanded the resignation of China’s aging Communist Party leaders. Closure Question #3: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Four Modernizations l New policies in industry, agriculture, technology, and national defense. 1) Agriculture: Deng eliminated Mao’s communes and leased the land to individual farmers. Food production increased by 50% from 1978 to 1984. 2) Industry: The government permitted private businesses to operate and welcomed foreign investment. 3) Technology: Thousands of Chinese students were sent to foreign nations to study science in order to bring new inventions back to China. 4) National Defense: Hundreds of thousands of young men swelled the ranks of the military while advanced military technology strengthened fighting ability. l l Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations aimed to move China to a more market-driven economy, but Deng remained committed to a Communist political system. In 1978 the government had briefly allowed people to express their ideas on a wall in Beijing, but when the message called for more political freedom, the “Democracy Wall” was torn down. Deng said that freedom like free speech and open debate “had never played a positive role in China. ” Deng’s economic policies produced striking changes in Chinese life. As incomes increased, people began to buy appliance and televisions. Chinese youths now wore stylish clothes and listened to Western music. Gleaming hotels filled with foreign tourists symbolized China’s new policy of openness. Deng’s economic reforms produced a number of unexpected problems. As living standards improved, the gap between the rich and poor widened. Increasingly, the public believed that party officials profited from their positions. Closure Question #3: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Tiananmen Square l Located in the Chinese capital of Beijing, in May 1989 student protesters led massive demonstrations against the corruption in the Communist Party. In response, Deng Xiaoping ordered tanks and troops into the area, killing between 500 and 2, 000 demonstrators and ending any chance of democracy in China. l Throughout the 1990 s, China’s human rights violations and its determination to unify with Taiwan strained its relationship wit the West. China’s increasing military power has also created an international concern. However, China still maintains diplomatic relations with the West. From the start, the Communist Party wanted to create a new kind of citizen, one who would give the utmost for the good of all China. In Mao’s words, the people “should be resolute, fear no sacrifice, and surmount every difficulty to win victory. ” During the 1950 s and 1960 s, the Chinese government made some basic changes. Women were now allowed to take part in politics and had equal martial rights – a dramatic shift for the Chinese. Mao feared that loyalty to the family would interfere with loyalty to the state. During the Cultural Revolution, for example, children were encouraged to report negative comments their parents made about the government. l After Mao’s death, family traditions returned. People now had more freedom in everyday matters and had better living conditions. Married couples who had been given patriotic names chose more elegant names for their own children. Clothing choices were no longer restricted to a baggy “Mao suit. ” Today, young Chinese people wear jeans, sneakers, and sweatsuits. Mao’s successors have followed one of his goals to the present day – the effort to control population growth. Criticized for being oppressive, the policy has been more successful in cities than it has in rural areas. Closure Question #3: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Hong Kong l A thriving business center and British colony on the southeastern coast of China; In 1997, Great Britain handed Hong Kong over to China, ending 155 years of colonial rule. As part of the transfer, China promised to respect Hong Kong’s economic system and political liberties for 50 years. l l The brutal repression of the prodemocracy movement left Deng firmly in control of China. During the final years of his life, Deng continued his program of economic reforms. Although Deng moved out of the limelight in 1995, he remained China’s leader. In February 1997, after a long illness, Deng died. Communist Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin assumed the presidency. Many questions arose after Deng’s death. What kind of leader would Jiang be? Would he be able to hold on to power and ensure political stability? A highly intelligent and educated man, Jiang had served as mayor of Shanghai. He was considered skilled, flexible, and practical. However, he had no military experience. Therefore, Jiang had few allies among the generals. He also faced challenges from rivals, including hard-line officials who favored a shift away from Deng’s economic policies. Other questions following Deng’s death had to do with China’s poor human rights record, its occupation of Tibet, and relations with the United States. During the 1990 s, the United States pressured China to release political prisoners and ensure basic rights for political opponents. China remained hostile to such pressure. Its government continued to repress the prodemocracy movement. Nevertheless, the desire for freedom still ran through Chinese society. If China remained economically open but politically closed, tensions seemed bound to surface. Closure Question #3: How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

Closure Assignment #4 l Answer the following questions based on what you have learned about the Collapse of the Soviet Union and dramatic growth of communist China: 1. How did Gorbachev’s reforms help to move the Soviet Union toward democracy? (At least 1 sentence) 2. In what ways can the breakup of the Soviet Union be compared to that of the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty? (At least 1 sentence) 3. How have China’s policies changed since Mao’s rule? (At least 1 sentence)

The Trial of George W. Bush