Cognitive Psychology Final Exam Review May 5 2006

Cognitive Psychology Final Exam Review May 5, 2006

Chapter 9 Questions l In order to understand the nature of representation there are two types of coding. What are these two types and describe them.

l Answer: people study the visual imagery in order to understand the nature of representation through analogue coding and symbolic coding. l l Analogue coding is when a person is trying to see whether the representation preserves the main perceptual features. On the other hand, symbolic coding deals with how might the images differ, or rather yet, if there is a more abstract representation of verbal description.

l The amount of _____ determines reaction time.

l Answer= Rotation

l Explain the details and results of Kosslyn's mental-walk task.

l Participants were to imagine that they were walking toward a mental image of an animal. They then had to estimate how far away they were from the animal when they began to experience "overflow" (when the image filled the visual field or when its edges started to become fuzzy. Participants had to move closer for smaller animals than for larger animals. The results concluded taht images are spatial, just like perception.

l What is mental rotation and how does it apply to the Shepard, R. N. & Metzler, J. Article?

l Mental rotation is the rotation of an object in one’s mind. This phenomenon applies to the Shepard et. al. article because this experiment studied participants’ mental rotation of three-dimensional objects and how this helped them to determine if the shapes were comparable to one another or not. The participants took both ends of the three-dimensional objects and rotated them until they could match the two ends up or until they realized that the objects were not the same.

Chapter 10 Questions l What is the name and meaning of the four language components discussed during lecture?

l l 1. phonology: rules governing structure and sequencing of speech sounds 2. semantics: relationship between language and meaning of words and their combinations 3. syntax: grammar, structural rules governing how words are arranged 4. pragmatics: rules for word usage/communication with others

l l 1. phonology: rules governing the structure and sequencing of speech sounds. 2. semantics: meaning of words and word combination. 3. syntax: rules governing how words are arranged into sentences. 4. pragmatics: rules determining how to engage in communication with others.

What is not a component of language? l a. phonology l b. semantics l c. pragmatics l d. syntax l e. segmentation

What is not a component of language? l a. phonology l b. semantics l c. pragmatics l d. syntax v e. segmentation

l Explain the basis behind linguistic determinism. Provide an example.

l l Language determines thought. If word exists for something then you are able to think that thought, but if no word exists then you can’t; Told to imagine skydiving: can think of what would be doing, can picture a plane or scenery down below, can even tell whether feel excited or frightened; if no word existed then everyone would have completely different or no thoughts at all

In regards to context effect, the word bug leads to a situation called: l A. Speech Segmentation l B. Syntactic ambiguity l C. Lexical ambiguity l D. Word-frequency effect

In regards to context effect, the word bug leads to a situation called: l A. Speech Segmentation l B. Syntactic ambiguity v C. Lexical ambiguity l D. Word-frequency effect

l Within the biological bases of language, compare Broca’s aphasia with Wernicke’s aphasia.

l l Broca’s: damage to left frontal lobe, good language comprehension, disrupted production of language Wernicke’s: damage to left temporal lobe, difficulty comprehending speech, produce effortless and fluent speech that does not make sense

l Define language and give the property of language that enables us to create new and unique sentences.

l Language is a system of communication through which we code and express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences. The property that enables us to create new and unique sentences is that it has a structure that is hierarchical and that is governed by rules.

John had severe head trauma due to a brutal car accident and now has great difficulty producing speech. It is very likely that John had severe trauma to: l A. Wernicke’s Area l B. Broca’s Area l C. There was no specific area of trauma

John had severe head trauma due to a brutal car accident and now has great difficulty producing speech. It is very likely that John had severe trauma to: l A. Wernicke’s Area v B. Broca’s Area l C. There was no specific area of trauma

Chapter 11 Questions What is not a step in problem solving? l a. goal state l b. end state l c. initial state l d. intermediate state

What is not a step in problem solving? l a. goal state v b. end state l c. initial state l d. intermediate state

l If you wanted to solve a problem using a similar solution that worked on another problem this would be called using: l A. B. C. D. l l l Algorithms Heuristics Biases Mental Sets

l If you wanted to solve a problem using a similar solution that worked on another problem this would be called using: A. v B. l C. l D. l Algorithms Heuristics Biases Mental Sets

l True or False: l Representativeness influence perceptions of base rate.

l True: Representativeness influence perceptions of base rate.

Ed has been an engineering professor for 25 years. Todd is a social work major in his Junior year. They are both given a difficult engineering problem to solve. Which is not likely to be true? l a) Ed knows more about engineering so he won't analyze the problem as long l b) Todd will analzye the problem longer because he does not know as much about engineering l c) Ed will organize the problem into deep structures while Todd will analyze the problem into surface structures l d) Ed possesses more knowledge about engineering

Ed has been an engineering professor for 25 years. Todd is a social work major in his Junior year. They are both given a difficult engineering problem to solve. Which is not likely to be true? v a) Ed knows more about engineering so he won't analyze the problem as long l b) Todd will analzye the problem longer because he does not know as much about engineering l c) Ed will organize the problem into deep structures while Todd will analyze the problem into surface structures l d) Ed possesses more knowledge about engineering

l What is the means-end analysis and its steps? Provide an example.

l l l Answer: The means-end analysis is a problem solving strategy in which the goal is to reduce the differences between the initial and goal state. In order to do this, a person must work to achieve sub goals that move closer to the goal. There are 5 steps: set up goal or sub-goal, look for difference between current state and goal/sub goal, look for operator that will reduce or eliminate this difference, apply operator, apply steps 2 -4 repeatedly until all sub goals and final goal are achieved. An example would be the tower of Hanoi? in which the sub goal was to free up the third disk C and in order to do that disk A was moved and then disk B was moved.

l l Means-end analysis is creating sub-goals to get closer to a goal state. The concept of means-end analysis begins with the set-up of a goal or a sub-goal and then looking for the difference between your current state and the goal/sub-goal. Next, you look for the operator that will reduce or eliminate the difference, apply the operator, then repeat steps 2 through 4 until all of your subgoals and final goal is achieved. A general goal for college students would be to graduate in four years. Some students may be in the predicament of having to stay here for an extra semester or two. The operator that could reduce the amount of the time that they have here would be summer school or taking more than 12 hours a semester. By registering for summer school or more hours the student will have a greater chance of graduating in four years. They will have an even better chance if they continue to do this each semester until they graduate.

What is an example of means-end analysis (MEA)? l a. Aiming to get an A on a test l b. Maintaining an attitude l c. The process of figuring out which solution best fits the problem l d. A process used in probability

What is an example of means-end analysis (MEA)? v a. Aiming to get an A on a test l b. Maintaining an attitude l c. The process of figuring out which solution best fits the problem l d. A process used in probability

Chapter 12 Questions Which best exemplifies Gambler's Fallacy? l a. Drawing an Ace in a deck of cards l b. Throwing a bullseye on a dart board l c. Six siblings to be boy/girl/boy/girl l d. Winning the lottery

Which best exemplifies Gambler's Fallacy? l a. Drawing an Ace in a deck of cards l b. Throwing a bullseye on a dart board v c. Six siblings to be boy/girl/boy/girl l d. Winning the lottery

l What are normative models and where can we use them ?

l Normative models are how people should make decisions and can be used in economics, math, and philosophy.

l What are the decision making models that Tversky and Kahneman described in article F?

l l l Answer: There are two decision making models: normative and descriptive model. The normative model describes how people should make decisions by wither usually involving calculations and rational choice. The other model would be descriptive model in which it is how people actually make decisions by either using heuristics or biases.

Billy wants to purchase a vacation package from a travel agent. If he goes to travel agent A he can purchase a package for $200, but if he goes to travel agent B there is a chance he get the same package for half price but also a chance they will be sold out of the package he wants to purchase. Which would be an example of risk aversion? l a) going to travel agent A l b) choosing a totally different travel agent l c) saving his money and not going at all l d) going to travel agent B

Billy wants to purchase a vacation package from a travel agent. If he goes to travel agent A he can purchase a package for $200, but if he goes to travel agent B there is a chance he get the same package for half price but also a chance they will be sold out of the package he wants to purchase. Which would be an example of risk aversion? v a) going to travel agent A l b) choosing a totally different travel agent l c) saving his money and not going at all l d) going to travel agent B

l l True or false? We use mental models to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning.

l True: We use mental models to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning.

Cognitive Development Questions What is the first stage of the cognitive developmental model by Piaget? l a. sensorimotor stage l b. formal operational stage l c. preoperational stage l d. concrete operational stage l e. beginning stage

What is the first stage of the cognitive developmental model by Piaget? v a. sensorimotor stage l b. formal operational stage l c. preoperational stage l d. concrete operational stage l e. beginning stage

l l True or False: Piaget’s theory on children’s development is based on patterns and stages that may be entered at any age depending on individual differences.

l False: Piaget’s theory on children’s development is based on patterns and stages that must be entered at the specific age listed age. Individual differences are not factored in

l How do both Piaget and Vygotsky account for learning in an educational environment (school, day care, etc. ) How do they differ in their views?

l A. Piaget uses more of a constructive view on education. The children learn by interacting with the environment and social surroundings. This includes classroom activities in a stimulating environment and a more hands-on learning environment. Vygotsky uses the scaffolding method of education. This means the children get a lot of help at first and the help decreases gradually. He also believes in the Zone of Proximal Development, which is the difference between what a child can do on their own and what they get help with. Vygotsky would probably use a lot of homework sheets and the smarter kids would help the children with difficulty on the activities.

Gina's 7 month old little girl accidentally bumps into her mobile. She likes the way it made it move so she does it again. This is an example of Piaget's l a) reflexive schema l b) primary circular reaction l c) secondary circular reaction l d) coordination of secondary circular reaction

Gina's 7 month old little girl accidentally bumps into her mobile. She likes the way it made it move so she does it again. This is an example of Piaget's l a) reflexive schema l b) primary circular reaction v c) secondary circular reaction l d) coordination of secondary circular reaction

l What are the four stages of cognitive development?

l l 1. Sensorimotor stage 2. Preoperational stage 3. Concrete operational stage 4. Formal operational stage

l What are schemes? Give examples of how infants incorporate schemes to shape their behavior(s).

l A. Schemes are psychological structures that help shape behavior and help us learn about the world. An infant would use schemes such as banging something against the kitchen table to learn about textures and how different stimuli sound when hit. Also, infants drop items to learn about basic gravity issues, and to learn about different sounds and affects things do when they drop. For example they know when they drop an egg it breaks, while dropping a spoon doesn’t do any damage.

If a child sees that a toy is blocked by another object, which sensorimotor substage is the child in? l a. reflexive shemes l b. secondary circular reactions l c. mental representation l d. coordination of secondary circular reactions

If a child sees that a toy is blocked by another object, which sensorimotor substage is the child in? l a. reflexive shemes l b. secondary circular reactions l c. mental representation v d. coordination of secondary circular reactions

l What is Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?

l l Answer: It is the idea that higher cognitive processes develop out of social interaction through joint activities with more mature partners. Internalization is the process by which what is social become personal and private speech is self-directed speech used to guide and plan own behavior.

l Describe the two ways that cognitive changes take place.

l The first way is assimilation, which is the use of current schemes to interpret the world. l The second way is accommodation, which is to adjust old schemes or create new ones after noticing current thinking doesn't fit the environment.

l Describe two characteristics of preoperational thought.

l A. One characteristic is egocentrism. This means that young children cannot understand the viewpoints of others and cannot distinguish those viewpoints from their own. A second characteristic is animistic thinking. This is basically giving lifelike qualities to nonliving things (i. e. clouds, grass, flowers, houses).

Unit 1 Review l The cognitive revolution started in the mid 1950’s and there were four main factors that influenced this revolution, describe what the four factors were.

l l 1. The decline of behaviorism there was not powerful enough to explain all mental life, 2. The language acquisition debate: how do we learn language (according to Skinner it was learned but according to Chomsky it was innate) 3. Piaget’s developmental research (it was becoming more prominent and there were more discoveries about how children think and understand) 4. Post WWII climate-the technology development of the computer changed how we interact and think. (there was artificial intelligence)

l What is the law of Pragnanz and what are a few principals of perception?

l l l l Answer: the Law of Pragnanz states that objects are perceived in the simplest way. A few examples would be proximity and closure, similarity, simplicity, continuity, common region and connectedness. Proximity: group objects nearby together Closure: perceive as whole object Similarity: elements that are similar tend to be grouped together Simplicity: viewers tend to organize elements in the simplest way possible Continuity: viewers tend to see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation Common region: elements that share a common area tend to be grouped together Connectedness: elements that are connected tend to be grouped together

l What is top-down and bottom-up processing and give an example of each.

l l Top-down processing is when you use prior knowledge, memories, and experiences to guide stimulus processing. An example of top-down processing would be, listening to a song and remembering the name and artist because of your memory of dancing to that same song at your senior prom. Bottom-up processing is using data in your environment to identify an object. An example of bottom-up processing would be, sitting in a courtroom and listening to the testimony and information coming from the defendant, victim, and the lawyers and realizing that you are witnessing a murder trial.

l l Bottom up processing also known as data-driven is incoming data. It is using the data in stimulus or in the environment to identify the object. This is obviously the starting point in perception because if there is no incoming data then there is no perception. An example would be a person processing the incoming light at the streetlight which then creates a pattern representing the street sign in the person’s retina. On the other hand top-down processing also known as concept driven is when people use their prior knowledge in which guides the stimulus processing. An example would be scene perception: for instance if you are in the kitchen you know what the bread looks like and you would identify it as the bread instead of the mailbox even though they have the same shape. Or rather yet when you proofread you are able to miss errors easier due to the fact that you are using prior knowledge.

l Both are thought processes that help sort information. Bottom up processing occurs when information is received by receptors. Top down processing occurs when knowledge or experiences have already been established.

l Explain the procedure of the Stroop effect.

l Participants were to focus on a list of words. The first list had the words of a color with the ink matching the color of the word (ex. the word red was in red ink). Participants were to name the colors of the ink. In the second list, the words were of colors, but the ink didn't match the colors of the words. The participants had the same task of naming the color of the ink. The names of the words interfered with the participants' ability to name the colors of the ink.

Sam is trying to determine if her new couch will fit through her front door. What area of her brain is most likely activated? l a) frontal lob l b) temporal lobe l c) parietal lobe l d) occipita lobe

Sam is trying to determine if her new couch will fit through her front door. What area of her brain is most likely activated? l a) frontal lob l b) temporal lobe v c) parietal lobe l d) occipita lobe

l What is meant by task load within the realm of attention? What are the differences between a high and low-load?

l l l task load: how much of an individual’s cognitive resources are being used when accomplishing a certain task high-load: difficult based on requirement of most cognitive resources, only selected items will then be processed low-load: easier where resources remain that can be used for additional tasks

l l l l Which of the choices is not a controversy in cognitive psychology? A) Nature -nurture B) Biological - physical C) Structure - process D) Domain general - domain specific E) All of the above F) None of the above

Which of the choices is not a controversy in cognitive psychology? l A) Nature -nurture v B) Biological - physical l C) Structure - process l D) Domain general - domain specific l E) All of the above l F) None of the above l

How does Broadbent? s Filter Model work? l a. info -> filter -> response l b. info -> register -> filter -> recognition -> response l c. info -> register -> recognition -> response l d. info -> filter -> recognition -> response

How does Broadbent? s Filter Model work? l a. info -> filter -> response v b. info -> register -> filter -> recognition -> response l c. info -> register -> recognition -> response l d. info -> filter -> recognition -> response

What is not a factor that influenced the cognitive revolution? l a. decline in behaviorism l b. language acquisition debate l c. Piaget’s developmental research l d. Overworking of kids in factories l e. Post WWII climate

What is not a factor that influenced the cognitive revolution? l a. decline in behaviorism l b. language acquisition debate l c. Piaget’s developmental research v d. Overworking of kids in factories l e. Post WWII climate

l l Fill in the blank: Participants are to pay attention to the _____ message while ignoring the other message _____. The participants are then instructed to repeat the attended message out loud.

l Participants are to pay attention to the _attended_ message while ignoring the other message _unattended_. The participants are then instructed to repeat the attended message out loud.

l l True or False: Jan, who is 34 yrs old, hasn't ridden a bike since she was in junior high. However, she bought a bike for her 5 yr old daugher and it all comes back to her on how to instruct her daughter on how to ride a bike. This is an example of bottom-up processing.

l False: This is not an example of bottom-up processing.

l l True or False: Using prior knowledge, memories, or experiences to guide stimulus processing is bottom-up processing.

l False: Using prior knowledge, memories, or experiences to guide stimulus processing is top-down processing.

l Based on the consequences of not attending, what can be the result of inattentional and change blindness?

l l inattentional blindness: fail to see what not currently paying attention to change blindness: fail to notice changes in a scene currently viewing

l What are task-specific resources and taskgeneral resources and the two examples of each that were given in lecture?

l l Task-specific resources have to do with the nature of the task and the interference that lies within the specific task. An example of this would be hearing two lists of words being read to you at the same time instead of hearing one list and seeing the other list. Task-general resources have to do with the interference across several tasks. The example of this that was given in lecture was driving and cell phone use. Dr. Hung stated that the resources available for talking on the phone are not available for driving also.

When asked to view an image, you fail to realize that another object was slowly introduced into the same image you were appearing at. This is an example of: l A. lightening flash l B. change blindness l C. precueing procedure l D. divided attention

When asked to view an image, you fail to realize that another object was slowly introduced into the same image you were appearing at. This is an example of: l A. lightening flash v B. change blindness l C. precueing procedure l D. divided attention

l Name three Gestalt Principles.

l Answer: l l l l Proximity Closure Similarity Simplicity Continuity Common Region Connectedness

Unit 2 Review Whose theory consists of the three components: long-term memory, a subset of long-term memory in active memory, and a subset of active memory in focus of attention? l a. Baddeley l b. Cowan l c. Sperling l d. Posner

Whose theory consists of the three components: long-term memory, a subset of long-term memory in active memory, and a subset of active memory in focus of attention? l a. Baddeley v b. Cowan l c. Sperling l d. Posner

l With amnesia and the loss of explicit memory, what is the difference between retrograde and anterograde?

l l retrograde: disrupts explicit memory for things learned prior to event leading to amnesia anterograde: disrupts explicit memory for experiences after onset of amnesia

Alice is trying to memorize a list of words for a vocabulary test. He will have the best performance on the test if he remembers the words by l a)what size and color the font is l b) thinking of synonyms for each word l c) rhyming each word with another word l d) none of the above

Alice is trying to memorize a list of words for a vocabulary test. He will have the best performance on the test if he remembers the words by l a) what size and color the font is v b) thinking of synonyms for each word l c) rhyming each word with another word l d) none of the above

l What are schemas and how do schemas influence memory?

l l A schema is organized knowledge about a topic on what is typical and how an event proceeds. It influences memory by selection, allocation of attention, and ability to make inferences.

Fill in the blank: ______ is apart of the traditional view of categories and means that the object must have feature to be a member and ______ means that the object having the feature makes it a member. l a: prototype; exemplar l b: fuzzy boundaries; graded membership l c: necessary feature; sufficent features l d: input; output

Fill in the blank: ______ is apart of the traditional view of categories and means that the object must have feature to be a member and ______ means that the object having the feature makes it a member. l a: prototype; exemplar l b: fuzzy boundaries; graded membership v c: necessary feature; sufficent features l d: input; output

l l Fill in the blank: _____ memory is procedural knowledge such as riding a bike while _____ memory is revealed by direct memory tasks such as a test question.

l _implicit_ memory is procedural knowledge such as riding a bike while _explicit_ memory is revealed by direct memory tasks such as a test question.

In a research experiment, a participant is asked to view a random list of 20 words. For some reason, the participant is only able to recall the first four words in the list. This is known as: l A. Recency Effect l B. Primacy Effect l C. phonological coding l D. none of the above

In a research experiment, a participant is asked to view a random list of 20 words. For some reason, the participant is only able to recall the first four words in the list. This is known as: l A. Recency Effect v B. Primacy Effect l C. phonological coding l D. none of the above

l What are three main components of Baddeley’s model?

l Answer= The two slave systems, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive

l What is the difference between primacy and recency effect?

l A. Primacy effect is when you remember earlier events, stimuli better because who have time to rehearse them and the are stored in LTM. Recency effect is when you remember recent information better because it is still in your STM.

l Match the three vertical hierarchy of categories from Rosch.

l l l Lower category resemblance matches with superordinate. Those that best mirror the environment matches with basic level. Categories that contrast with superordinate and share most of the attributes matches the subordinate.

l Within memory acquisition what are three levels of processing? Provide an example of each.

l l l 1. shallow processing: superficial engagement, font judgment 2. medium processing: medium engagement, rhyme judgment 3. deep processing: highly engaged with meaning, synonym judgment

l Describe the Modal Model of Memory.

l A. First, input goes to the sensory memory. Next, some of the sensory memory goes into short term memory. From the STM, one of two things takes place. Either the memory goes to an output and is used, or it is stored in Long term memory where it can be retrieved at a later time.

Who conducted the research of "How to become famous overnight" as covered in implicit memory? l a. Bower, Black & Turner (1979) l b. Bransford & Johnson (1972) l c. Schooler & Engsher-Schooler (1990) l d. Jacoby, Kelley, Brown et al (1989)

Who conducted the research of "How to become famous overnight" as covered in implicit memory? l a. Bower, Black & Turner (1979) l b. Bransford & Johnson (1972) l c. Schooler & Engsher-Schooler (1990) v d. Jacoby, Kelley, Brown et al (1989)