Cognitive Psychology Created by David Silverman Memories ThreeBoxInformationProcessing

Cognitive Psychology Created by David Silverman

Memories Three-Box/Information-Processing Model- information passes through three stages before it is stored. First processed by our sensory memory, then info is encoded into our short term, finally some of that information is encoded into our long term memory Sensory Memory (aka iconic memory)- our split second holding tank for all our incoming sensory information (less than a second). George Sperling -experiment where he flashed a grid of nine letters for 1/20 th of a second asked participants to recall any of the rows. The participants could recall any of the rows perfectly. Explicit VS Implicit Memories- Explicit memories (aka declarative memories) -the ones we usually think of. They are the conscious memories of facts/events that we actively try to recall. Implicit memories (aka nondeclarative)- the memories that are unintentional & we might not realize them (riding a bike, typing, or getting dressed) Photographic memory/Eidetic memory indicates that someone has very powerful & enduring visual images (EX: Psychologist Alexandra Luria studied a person that remembers a string of 15 numbers 15 years later). Levels of Processing Model - Think about memories like a processing model. Memories are either deeply (or elaborately) processed or shallowly (or maintenance) processed. The more and longer you study= the more likely you are able to recall it later.

Memories: Short Term vs Long Term Short Term Memory (Working Memory) are actively working-(the ones we are aware of in our consciousness). If we do nothing with these memories, they fade in about 10 -30 seconds. Is said to have a ‘Magic Number’ limit of 7 items. To increase the ability to memorize more than 5 -9 items-there are brain tools that people use Mnemonic devices- let people remember more complex concepts (BATD) (Never Eat Soggy Waffles) Chunking- by chunking items on the list you have a better chance of remembering them. A grocery list clumped by meals is easier to remember than all of those individual items. Repeating/Rephrasing- the more times you repeat something, the higher chance of it turning into a long term memory. Long Term Memory permanent storage for memories. Scientists don’t think there is a limit on time or space in our long-term memory - so if a memory makes it there, it will most likely be there for life (although it can fade or decay). There are 3 formats… #1) Episodic Memory- memories of events, stored in chronological, sequential way. Ex: You remember the last time you went out on a date. #2) Semantic Memory- general knowledge of the world (stored as facts/meanings) Ex: You remember the difference between ‘then and than’ or ‘too and two’ #3) Procedural Memory- memories of skills and how to perform them (even if they are complicated described in words) Ex: throwing a curveball, riding a bike

Memory: Retrieval (getting info from memory) There are two types of retrieval: recognition and recall. Recognition the process of matching a current event with one already in your memory (Ex: Have I smelled this smell before? ) Recall is retrieving a memory with an external cue (Ex: What does Uncle Nico’s cologne smell like? ”) Studies show there a variety of reasons why people wouldn’t be able to retrieve/recall some memories and not others Order/sequence of events can be one factor. (Hermann Ebbinghaus established that the order of the items is related to whether or not you will remember them). Primary effect- says we are more likely to recall items at the beginning of a list. Recency effect- says we are more likely to recall the most recent (end of list). When the two are meshed together (the middle is most likely forgotten) is called the serial position effect (aka serial position curve). Context is also important- if you learn someone’s name first and then try to recall it later- it might be difficult. But if you hear that someone is a serial killer, you might remember their name more deeply Tip of the tongue phenomenon- You know someone’s name and it’s on the tip of your tongue but you can’t recall it immediately. Semantic Network Theory- Your brain is working through memories, qualities, etc…. getting closer to recalling the name. Flashbulb Memories- powerful events or extreme memories that allow us to recall vivid context details. (Ex: Most people can recall what they were doing on September 11, 2001). Mood or emotional context also affects memory retrieval. Mood-congruent memory- a greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matched the mood we were in when the even happened. Ex- when you’re happy, you’re more likely to remember good times and the opposite. State-dependent memory- just like the above but with states of mind. Ex- if you remember to write down a note

Memory: Forgetting- sometimes memories fade. One cause is decay (forgetting because we don’t use the memory, or connect it to any new memories, for a long period of time). Another cause of forgetting is interference – when other information competes with the memories you’re trying to recall. Interference can happen in two different ways… Retroactive Interference- Learning new info interferes with recalling older info. EX: If you study for psych at 3: 00 and sociology at 6: 00, you might have trouble recalling psych the next day (fresh on the brain) Proactive Interference- Older information you already learned interferes with recalling new things. If you read a list of numbers in one order and then again in another, the old number order screws with your ability to remember the new list order. People with damage to their hippocampus have an inability to encode new memories (aka anterograde amnesia). They can still learn new things. Studies in animals indicate that this could be stored in the cerebellum. On the neurological level, research is focused on long-term potentiation. Neurons have the potential to strengthen connections between each other, especially the more the neuron fires and repeats the process. This could also be linked to long term memory. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events that occurred before the amnesia. Constructive Memory- the memories that our brain might create to fill in gaps. People have claimed to be able to recover memories in therapy when they have been repressed for years. Often not real- the brain creates these.

Language: Elements and Acquisition Elements of Language- consists of phonemes put together to become morphemes (make-up words). The words are spoken in a particular order (Syntax. ) Every language has its own syntax (grammar structure). EX- where verbs are placed Phonemes- the smallest unit of sound used in language. English uses 44 phonemes. Various languages=various phonemes EX: Spanish speakers find the rolled-R phoneme natural, but others may have difficulty producing this sound Morphine the smallest unit of meaningful sound. It can be words, ( like a or an) or part of words, ( like the prefix ‘pre’) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Language Acquisition- how language learning reflects and predicts our development. When babies are learning language, they go through the same basic stages in order to master language. #1) The first stage -at 4 months old. Babies babbling could represent a baby experimenting with different phonemes, and learning what sounds they can produce. All babies are capable of producing any phoneme from any language when they are born As language learning progresses, we lose this ability and strengthen the phonemes in our native language. This is also why it could be easier for babies to learn a secondary language starting at infancy. #2) Babbling progresses into utterances where babies imitate the words their caregiver is speaking is called the holophrastic or one word stage. This is when babies speak single words and it usually happens around their first birthday

#3) The next stage, at 18 months, is the telegraphic speech or two-word stage. Toddlers combine the words they say into simple commands. The meaning of what they are saying is usually clear, but there is rarely any syntax (grammar). Noam Chomsky: humans are born with a language acquisition device, which is the ability to learn a language quickly as a child (aka nativist theory of language acquisition). He thought a critical window of language development might exist where a child must learn a skill. If this does not happen, language development will permanently suffer. Benjamin Whorf -thought that the language we use might control and or limit our thinking. This is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Studies show the effects of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas. Although few studies show that the language we speak has a drastic impact on what we are able to think about and comprehend.

Thinking, Creativity, and Problem-Solving Thinking and Creativity Algorithms- is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula for thinking (or a foolproof method). Ex- you realize that a password is a two letter combination, you can build an algorithm to go through the combos to eventually guess it. Extreme Beliefs: Extreme confidence when you are wrong is called overconfidence. Belief Bias- When your beliefs force you to overlook opposing evidence. Belief Preservation- When your beliefs force you to overlook opposing evidence. You continue to believe even after your evidence is proved wrong Heuristics- is a rule of thumb. Something that is generally true but not always. EX- you have to guess at a 5 letter password. You start with words that you know (pet names, etc). It’s a decent guess, sometimes true. Availability Heuristic- Judging a situation based on similar situations that come to mind. Basing judgments on personal experiences. EX- you think your neighborhood is dangerous because you have seen a crime but a stranger doesn’t get that impression. Representiveness Heuristic- Judging a situation based on similar case studies. EX- The community assumes someone doesn’t commit suicide because it is against that person’s religion and most people in that community don’t believe in suicide. Common Mistakes in Problem Solving Rigidity (aka mental set)- falling into mental thought patterns. If you normally use a certain way to problem solve, you might miss a new way to look at it. Functional fixedness- The inability to see or use an object in any way other than its intended purpose. Ex- a group of students see a car stuck in the mud. Only one student thinks to use the car jack to lift the car out of the mud to put wooden planks under it. Most are thinking of only using a car jack to change a tire. Confirmation Bias- When someone wants something to be true and they ignore contradiction evidence while problem solving. Ex- if a cigarette company is paying for a ‘study’ then the ‘research’ might be looking for ways to avoid certain answers. This hinders truth. Framing- refers to the way a problem is presented/ positioned. Ex- if you tell a class “only half of my students pass this test” vs “almost all of my students ace this test”- you change the students expectations for the test… and possibly their ability to correctly answer questions.

Resources References Mr. Duez- powerpoints and videos This powerpoint presentation was adapted using information from the Barron’s AP Psychology 5 th edition prep book. Weseley, Allyson, Robert Mc. Entarffer, and Robert Mc. Entarffer. AP® Psychology. Hauppauge, N. Y. : Barron's Educational Series, 2014. Print. Fineburg, A. , & Myers, D. (2010). Myers' Psychology for AP*: Teacher's edition (Teacher's ed. ). New York: Worth /BFW. http: //appsych. mrduez. com/p/5 cognition-memory-languagethought_9. html http: //appsych. mrduez. com/p/5 cognition-memory-languagethought. html Crash Course Psychology Making Memories Remembering and Forgetting Cognition Language