Cognition Memory Chapter 8 1 Cognitive Psychology Subdiscipline

Cognition: Memory Chapter 8 1

Cognitive Psychology • Subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. • Studies on memory, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, language, intelligence, and creativity. • “Cognitive Revolution" initiated by Noam Chomsky -- 1960 s • Trace back to Piaget 2

Count the syllables in 45 Secs. • Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. • Brain: an apparatus with which we think that we think. • Nothing fixes a thing so intensely in the memory as the wish to forget it.

10 equations & 20 seconds 6 X 7 15 – 6 3 X 9 16 / 4 8 X 5 9+6 6/2 4 X 8 13 + 4 19 – 8

Memory • Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. • Our ability to store and retrieve information. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even yourself would be a stranger.

Take out a piece of paper…. . • Name the seven dwarves…. . Now name them…. .

Was it easy or hard? • It depends on several things…. • If you like Disney movies? • When was the last time you have seen the movie? • Are people around you being loud so you cannot concentrate?

30 words & 2 minutes circle bread dog sister coat sleigh pilot rope office map thunder folder tubing pottery shape edge section train apple midnight mind bell head problem kite flap brand point account wallet

The Memory Process Three step process…. 1. Encoding: The processing of putting information into the memory system. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Three Box/Stage Model of Memory Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) shortterm memory, and c) long-term memory

Baddeley & Hitch's Model of Working Memory (1974)

Encoding • • Getting Information In Parallel Processing vs Serial Processing Automatically Processed– Space b/w objects, sequence & how often events happen Effortful Processing – Novel/ New Info Requires attention and effort 14

Figure 2

The Ways we can Encode… • Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. • Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. • Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning. (Associate w/ what already know = better recognition later than acoustic or visual alone) • Organizational Encoding: Categorizing / Chunking / Hierarchies

Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…

Memory & Encoding Effects • Primacy Effect • Recency Effect • Serial Positioning Effect (When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items)

Rehearsal & Spacing Effect • Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition • Hermann Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ • We retain information better when we rehearse over time (Spacing Effect) • DO NOT CRAM!!!!!! • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Rehearsal Forgetting Curve 20

Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval 21

Storage: Sensory Memory • A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. • George Sperling’s (1960) research on Iconic Memory – free recall vs cued recall (brief perfect image then discarded) • Echoic Memory

Sensory Memory Percent Recognized The longer the time delay, the greater the memory loss. 80 60 40 20 0. 15 0. 30 0. 50 Time (Seconds) 1. 00 23

Sensory Memories The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0. 5 sec. long Echoic 3 -4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long 24

Short Term Memory • The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM. • Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. • Working Memory

Why a Working Memory Model? • A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory • Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. • Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it 26 into our working memory.

STM/ Working Memory Capacity • George Miller • The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two (1956). • Limited capacity = 7 bits ± 2 Ready? MUTGIKTLRSYP George Miller 27

Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM Chunking: • Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. • Acronyms are examples of chunking HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ROY G. BIP = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Purple F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M 1 -4 -9 -2 -1 -7 -7 -6 -1 -8 -1 -2 -1 -9 -4 -1

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Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM • Mnemonic devices Utilize Vivid Imagery & Organizational Devices to aid memory – Examples = Method of Loci (visualize places) & Peg Word Approach (1 = bun) • Rehearsal Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally My Very Earnest Mother Just Served Us Nine Pies

Working Memory Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ MKT HIJ 547 544 541 … Duration of working memory is about 20 sec. CH? ? 34

Working Memory Duration 35

Memory Feats – Simon Reinhard & Ben Pridmore -- WMC 36

Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval 37

Long Term Memory • Unlimited storehouse of information. • Lasts for Years.

Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic Capacity Unlimited 7± 2 Chunks Very Large Duration 0. 25 sec. 20 sec. Years 40

Storing Memories Long-Term Potentiation • Synaptic Enhancement after learning (synaptic plasticity) • long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously. • In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

Storing Memories • Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. • Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events 42

Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories • Explicit Memory = Declarative memories -- facts and experiences that you consciously know and declare. • Implicit memory = Procedural memories & Conditioned learning. 43

Explicit Memories • Episodic Memories -- Events • Semantic Memories – Facts & Meaning • Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories

Anterograde Amnesia After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry Molaison (HM) remembered everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Memory Intact Anterograde Amnesia (HM) No New Memories Surgery 45

Implicit Memories • Procedural Memories = Skills • Conditioned Memories • Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories

Implicit Memory HM was unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he could form new memories that were procedural (implicit). A B C HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he played it, he was unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. 47

Case of Clive Wearing

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. 49

Types of Retrieval Recall • you must retrieve the information from your memory using effort. • fill-in-the blank or essay tests • The capital of France is ______. Recognition • you must identify the target from possible targets • multiple-choice tests

Measures of Memory In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. Relearning Effect List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list List 1 day later Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring Saving It took 5 trials to learn the list Relearning Trials X 100 Original Trials 10 10 5 X 100 50% 51

Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell fire smoke Fire Truck heat hose truck red 52

Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming. 53

The Context Matters!!! • Context Effect • Flashbulb Memories • Mood Congruent Memory • State Dependent Memory

Mood-Dependent Memory We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood. Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent. State-Dependent Memories? 57

Déjà Vu • Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before. ” • Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. 58

Forgetting • An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. • Encoding Failure - cannot remember what we do not encode • Storage Decay - Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay - Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve 59

Forgetting

Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red? ) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). 61

Interference Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number. • Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information. • Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information. Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name.

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Motivated Forgetting • People unknowingly revise their memories. Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Sigmund Freud 64

• • Constructive Memory Memories are not always what they seem. Source Amnesia Elizabeth Loftus A constructed memory is a created memory. • Misinformation effect • Fabricated memories?

Misinformation Effect Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Depiction of the actual accident. 66

Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? 67

Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit). Eyewitness Accounts? 68

Improving Memory 1. Rehearsal -- study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. 2. Spacing Effect -- spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. 3. Semantic Ecoding -- make material personally meaningful. 4. Chunk material – Acronyms 5. Use mnemonic devices: § § peg words make up a story 69

Improving Memory 6. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood. 7. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. 8. Minimize interference: 1. Test your own knowledge. 2. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know. 70