Classroom Instruction That Works ResearchBased Strategies for Increasing
Classroom Instruction That Works Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement q q q By Robert J. Marzono Debra J. Pickering Jane E. Pollock Published 2005 Expands on the 2000 “What Works in Classroom Instruction” by Marzano, Gaddy and Dean 1
Effect Sizes and Other Exciting Topics q q q q Educational research Meta-analysis Standard deviation units Percentile gains Negative effects Normal distribution One size does not fit all The unknown – proceed with caution No, it’s not that exciting, but your friendly school psychologist loves this part! Meeting strict standards for reviewing and comparing research allows us to feel confident applying it! 2
Three ^ Elements of Effective Pedagogy Instructional Strategies Classroom Management Curriculum Design Assessment Practices 3
Big Ideas q Applying the Research on Instruction: What Works q q Individual teacher impact much higher than previously believed Research-Based Strategies q q q q q Identifying Similarities and Differences Summarizing and Note Taking Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition Homework and Practice Nonlinguistic Representations Cooperative Learning Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback Generating and Testing Hypotheses Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers 4
Identifying Similarities and Difference q Pattern-seeking human brain q q q Making comparisons Classifying Creating metaphors Creating analogies Teacher-directed and student-directed 5
Summarizing and Note Taking q Summarize q q Identify critical information Analyze it deeply Understand the structure of information Take Notes q q q Teach HOW to take notes Review and revise Use as study guide for test 6
Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition q q q Belief in effort (not luck, other people, or ability) is most important Not all students realize the importance of effort We can change their beliefs to emphasize effort Rewards – positive or negative? When is it most effective to reward? What are the most effective rewards? 7
Homework and Practice q q q Opportunity to deepen understanding and sharpen skills taught in class Purpose should be clearly articulated to students and parents Work towards both accuracy and speed (understanding and fluency) 8
Nonlinguistic Representations q q q Reflect on and create mental pictures Interpret and generate graphic representations When tied to linguistic statements, strengthens understanding and memory 9
Cooperative Learning q q q Positive interdependence Face-to-face interaction Individual and group accountability Interpersonal and small group skills Group processing 10
Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback q Goal setting q q Narrow the focus Seek generalization Utilize student input in goal setting Feedback is q q Corrective and instructional (not just right or wrong) Timely Specific to skill or knowledge A way of self-monitoring 11
Generating and Testing Hypotheses q q Applying knowledge Deductive and inductive reasoning Giving written and verbal justification Applicable to many subject areas 12
Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers q q q Activate prior knowledge Focus on IMPORTANT, rather than unusual Aim for higher order questioning Utilize wait time Incorporate before, during and after Choose the right tool for the situation 13
Looking closer. . . Chapter 2 Similarities and Differences 14
Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities and Differences q Explicitly teaching students to identify similarities and differences enhances their ability to understand use knowledge 15
Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities and Differences q Providing opportunities for students to independently identify similarities and differences enhances their ability to understand use knowledge 16
Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities and Differences q Representing similarities and differences in graphic or symbolic form enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge 17
Research and Theory on Identifying Similarities and Differences q Identification of similarities and differences can be accomplished in a variety of highly interactive ways q q Comparing Classifying Creating metaphors Creating analogies 18
Comparing – Classroom Practice q Teacher-Directed Comparison Tasks q q Items Characteristics for comparison Identifying the IMPORTANT characteristics is key when making comparisons 19
Comparing q Student-Directed Comparison Tasks q q Items Characteristics for comparison Identifying the IMPORTANT characteristics is key when making comparisons 20
Graphic Organizers for Comparisons Comparison Matrix Characteristics Items to be #1 1. compared Similarities and Differences #2 S D 2. S D 3. S D 4. S D 5. Venn Diagram S D 21
Classifying – Classroom Practice q Teacher-Directed Classification Tasks Ø Ø Elements Categories Critical to the task of classifying is an understanding of the rules that govern a class or category Membership. 22
Classifying q Student-Directed Classification Tasks Ø Ø Elements Categories Critical to the task of classifying is an understanding of the rules that govern a class or category Membership. 23
Graphic Organizers for Classification Categories 24
Metaphors q Teacher-Directed Metaphors Ø Ø First element Abstract relationship The key to using metaphors is the understanding that the two items are connected by an abstract or nonliteral relationship 25
Metaphors q Student-Directed Metaphors Ø Ø First element Abstract relationship The key to using metaphors is the understanding that the two items are connected by an abstract or nonliteral relationship 26
Analogies q Teacher-Directed Analogies Ø Discuss and guide analysis of first relationship • Ø Discuss and guide analysis of how first relationship might apply to second set • Ø Subtract : Divide Teach whole analogy • Ø Add : Multiply Add : Subtract : : Multiply : Divide Scaffold task The most complex format, requiring students to analyze relationships between relationships 27
Analogies q Student-Directed Analogies Ø Provide first relationship • Ø Students analyze and create second set • Ø Add : Multiply Subtract : Divide Scaffold task The most complex format, requiring students to analyze relationships between relationships 28
Graphic Organizers for Analogies is to (relationship) ________ as is to thermometer is to temperature (relationship) first measures incremental changes in second odometer is to distance 29
Similarities and Differences q Teach directly q Have students practice independently q Teach and use graphic or symbolic representations q Use a variety of activities 30
Looking closer. . . Chapter 3 Summarizing and Note Taking 31
Summarizing q Research and Theory q Determine critical information Ø Ø Ø q Analyze at a deep level Ø q Delete some Substitute some Keep some Comprehension is critical Understand the structure of the material Ø Ø Components and features Knowing where to look 32
Summarizing Rule Based Strategy, Summary Frames, Reciprocal Teaching q Classroom Practice q Rule-based Strategy Ø Ø Delete trivial information Delete redundant material Categorize – use superordinate terms Select or create a topic sentence 33
Summarizing Rule Based Strategy, Summary Frames, Reciprocal Teaching q Classroom Practice q Summary Frames Ø Ø Ø Narrative Frame Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame (expository) Definition Frame Argumentation Frame Problem/Solution Frame Conversation Frame Pg. 35 -41 34
Summarizing Rule Based Strategy, Summary Frames, Reciprocal Teaching q Classroom Practice q Reciprocal Teaching Ø Ø Summarizing Questioning Clarifying Predicting 35
Note Taking q Research and Theory q Succinctly explain the critical information Ø Ø Verbatim least effective A work in progress • • • Ø Ø Review Revise Teacher direction Study guides for tests More is better than less for test performance 36
Note Taking q Classroom Practice q Teacher-prepared notes Ø Ø Clear, organized, accurate Identifies most important content in summary form • q Understanding of concepts, not just memorization of facts Student format for notes Ø Ø Informal outlines 2 column notes Webs/maps Combination notes 37
2 -column definitions TERM acute obtuse right DEFINITION complementary supplementary alternate interior alternate exterior 38
2 -column note taking from lecture or books Key Idea Explanations, Examples Bar graph Shows information in picture form Key Idea Axis X+y Rule 39
Looking closer. . . Chapter 4 Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition 40
q Success to…? is generally attributed ØAbility ØEffort ØOther People ØLuck 41
Research and Theory Reinforcing Effort q q q Attitudes and beliefs impact student performance Not all students realize the importance of believing in effort Students can learn to change their beliefs about effort 42
Classroom Practice – Reinforcing Effort q Teaching q Keeping track of effort and performance 43
Research and Theory Providing Recognition q Would you be motivated by more money? q Would you do it for the “teacher of the year” award? Would you be motivated by increased student performance in your classroom? Would you do it to see MEAP/ACT/SAT scores improve for your students? q q 44
Research and Theory Providing Recognition q 1. Rewards do not necessarily have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation. q 2. Reward is most effective when it is contingent on the attainment of some standard of performance. q 3. Abstract symbolic recognition is more effective than tangible rewards. Pg. 56 chart 45
Classroom Practice Providing Recognition q Personal Recognition q Pause, Prompts, and Praise q Concrete Symbols of Recognition 46
Looking closer. . . Chapter 5 Homework and Practice 47
Homework Research and Theory q q The amount of homework assigned should vary by grade level. (effect pg. 61; quote and recommendations pg 62) Parent involvement in homework should be kept to a minimum. The purpose should be identified and clearly articulated to students and parents. If you assign it, you should comment on it. 48
Classroom Practice Assigning Homework q 1. Establish and communicate a homework policy. q 2. Design homework assignments that clearly articulate the purpose and outcome. q 3. Vary the approaches to providing feedback. 49
Practice Research and Theory q Mastering a skill requires a fair amount of focused practice. q While practicing , students should adapt and shape what they have learned. 50
Practicing Skills Classroom Practice q Charting Accuracy and Speed q Designing Practice Assignments that Focus on Specific Elements of a Complex Skill or Process q Planning Time for Students to Increase Their Conceptual Understanding of Skills or Processes 51
Looking closer. . . Chapter 6 Nonlinguistic Representations 52
Nonlinguistic Representations q q q Reflect on and create mental pictures Interpret and generate graphic representations When tied to linguistic statements, strengthens understanding and memory 53
Looking closer. . . Chapter 7 Cooperative Learning 54
Research and Theory Cooperative Learning q Five Defining Elements Ø Positive Interdependence Ø Face-to-face promotive interaction Ø Individual and group accountability Ø Interpersonal and small group skills Ø Group processing 55
Research and Theory Cooperative Learning q Three generalizations: q q q Organizing groups based on ability levels should be done sparingly. Cooperative groups should be kept rather small in size. Cooperative learning should be applied consistently and systematically, but not overused. 56
Classroom Practice Cooperative Learning q Using a variety of criteria q Informal, formal and base groups q Managing group size q Combining cooperative learning with other classroom structures 57
Looking closer. . . Chapter 8 Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback 58
Write it down. Written goals have a way of transforming wishes into wants; cannots into cans; dreams into plans; and plans into reality. Don't just think it - ink it! 59
Goal Setting q Process of establishing a direction for learning 60
Goal Setting q Most successful people have mastered goal setting to help them achieve short term and long term desires 61
Goal Setting q Instructional goals narrow what students focus on 62
Goal Setting q Instructional goals need to be specific, but should not be too specific. 63
Goal Setting q Students should be encouraged to personalize the teacher’s goal 64
Personalized Goal Setting Helpful Tools Sentence Stems q q q I want to know more about… I know that the heart pumps blood through the body, but I want to know how a heart attack happens. I want to know how I can use a 2 + b 2 = c 2 in real life. I want to know if the intestines are really four miles long. I want to know why the answer to multiplication of fractions is smaller than either of the fractions multiplied. 65
Personalized Goal Setting Helpful Tools Contracts: - Contracts allow students the opportunity to state the goals they will try to attain and the grade they will receive if they do attain them 66
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Classroom Instruction that Works Providing Feedback 68
Providing Feedback The most powerful single modification that enhances achievement is feedback. The simplest prescription for improving education must be “dollops of feedback” (p. 9) John Hattie University of Aukland 69
Providing Feedback Effect sizes on providing feedback are generally medium to large ___________________. 0 none percentile gain of 0. 20 small percentile gain of 8. 50 medium percentile gain of 20. 80 large percentile gain of 29 q 70
Providing Feedback q Feedback should be corrective q Provide students with an explanation of what they are doing that is correct and what they are doing that is not correct 71
Providing Feedback q Different ways of giving feedback on tests have varied impacts of learning q q Providing students with an explanation as to what is right and what is wrong with their answers (ES. 53) Allowing them to repeat the task (retake test) until they can succeed (ES. 53) Providing them with the correct answer (ES. 22) Telling students if answer is right or wrong (ES -. 08) (simply telling them their score) 72
Timing of Feedback q Feedback should be timely q q The more delay that occurs in giving feedback, the less improvement there is in achievement In test taking situations, Ø Ø Ø Immediately after a test Delayed after a test Immediately after a test item (ES. 72) (ES. 56) (ES. 19) 73
Timing of Tests q Timing of tests One day after learning takes place (ES. 74) One week after learning takes place (ES. 53) Longer than one week after learning takes place (ES. 26) Immediately after learning takes place (ES. 17) 74
Providing Feedback q Feedback should be specific to a criterion q reference a specific level of skill or knowledge Ø Need to provide feedback on what students have learned about the content rather than how they stand relative to others or what grade they received 75
Providing Feedback Helpful Tools q q q Student’s Own Progress Monitoring Student’s Progress Monitoring of Others Rubrics 76
Providing Feedback q Students can effectively provide some of their own feedback q Students can monitor their own progress Ø Keep track of their performance over time • Graph correct number of words (problems) correct in a minute ü Read Naturally - reading ü Fast Facts - math 77
Providing Feedback q Students can effectively provide feedback to each other q Peer Assisted Learning Strategies Ø Reading and Math 78
Looking closer. . . Chapter 9 Generating and Testing Hypotheses 79
Research and Theory on Generating and Testing Hypotheses q By definition, the process of generating and testing hypotheses involves the application of knowledge 80
Research and Theory on Generating and Testing Hypotheses q Deductive reasoning q Inductive Reasoning Know general rule Action or events happen Predict future action or event Shape your understanding of the general rule Refer to Effect Sizes - Pg. 106 81
Research and Theory on Generating and Testing Hypotheses q Explaining the hypotheses and the conclusions, particularly in writing, leads to deeper understanding of the principles 82
Research and Theory on Generating and Testing Hypotheses q q Applicable to many subject areas Specific Mathematics examples… 83
Classroom Practice for Generating and Testing Hypotheses q A variety of structured tasks… Ø Ø Ø Systems Analysis Problem Solving Historical Investigation Invention Experimental Inquiry Decision Making 84
Classroom Practice for Generating and Testing Hypotheses q q Deeper understanding develops through the process of explaining, orally or in writing, your thinking. Teachers can… 85
Looking closer. . . Chapter 10 Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers 86
Research and Theory on Cues and Questions q Activate prior knowledge and you increase learning q Let’s compare the effect sizes on page 112. 87
Research and Theory on Cues and Questions q Focus on IMPORTANT, rather than unusual information 88
Research and Theory on Cues and Questions q Aim for higher order questioning 89
Research and Theory on Cues and Questions q Utilize wait time 90
Research and Theory on Cues and Questions q Incorporate questions before, during and after learning experiences 91
Classroom Practice for Cues and Questions q Explicit Cues 92
Classroom Practice for Cues and Questions q Questions that elicit inferences 93
Classroom Practice for Cues and Questions q Analytical Questions 94
Research and Theory on Advance Organizers q Effect sizes, page 117 q Important, not unusual Higher-level rather than lower-level thinking Information that needs organizing Choose the right tool for the job q q q 95
Research and Theory on Advance Organizers q q Expository Advance Organizers (describing the content) Narrative Organizers (telling the information in a story format) Skimming the text (read the bold print or summary) Graphic Advance Organizers 96
Looking closer. . . Chapter 11 Teaching Specific Types of Knowledge ~ Vocabulary, Details, Organizing Ideas, Skills and Processes 97
Research and Theory on Teaching Vocabulary Terms q Students must encounter words in context more than once to learn them. q Check out effect sizes on page 125. Compare the notes you’ve taken about effect sizes with a partner. 98
Research and Theory on Teaching Vocabulary Terms q Instruction in new words (prior instruction) enhances learning those words in context. q Paired language is when you use both the target vocabulary word and a student-friendly explanation in the same sentence. For example, “Look for the parallel lines, the ones in the same plane that won’t ever intersect or cross each other, in this exercise. ” 99
Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms One of the best ways to learn a new word is to associate an image with it. q Parallel (Pair of ll’s) Effect Sizes – page 127 100
Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms q Direct vocabulary instruction works. 101
Research and Theory on Vocabulary Terms q Teach the most important words for your content area. 102
Classroom Practice in Teaching Vocabulary q q Identify what is critical Teach with a systematic process q q q Student friendly explanation or description Nonlinguistic representation Examples and non-examples Student-generated explanations Student-generated nonlinguistic representations Periodic practice, review, and check for accuracy 103
Classroom Practice in Teaching Vocabulary Ø With mathematical vocabulary is it important that you teach, and students understand: • • Synonyms (an axiom, or a postulate, is a rule that is accepted as true without proof) Related Terms (kilometers and miles are both units of measure but are not identical in length) Superordinate and category terms (a cube is type of three-dimensional solid or three-dimensional solids include the cube, sphere and cylinder, etc. ) Opposites (Kdg. example: “addition is putting together, subtraction is taking away”) 104
Research and Theory on Teaching Details q Systematic, multiple exposure to details q Details are remembered better, both immediately and one year after instruction, when dramatization is added. Figure 11. 3, page 130 Effect sizes, page 131 105
Classroom Practice for Teaching Details q Multiple exposures q q (Read and discuss page 132) Dramatic Representation q What does THAT look like? 106
Research and Theory on Organizing Ideas q q Students commonly have misconceptions about organizing ideas when they are first introduced to them. Correcting misconceptions q q Discussion Argumentation Effect sizes – Page 135 107
Classroom Practice for Organizing Ideas q Making sure that students can clearly articulate statements of generalizations and principles and provide numerous examples Ø Ø Ø q Direct instruction Multiple exposures Writing Helping students increase their understanding of generalizations and principles and clear up misconceptions about them Ø Ø Discussion Argumentation 108
Research and Theory on Mental Skills q q q The discovery approach is difficult to use effectively with skills. When teachers use discovery learning, they should organize examples into categories that represent the different approaches to the skill. Skills are most useful when learned to the level of automaticity. Discuss with a partner q Tactics - q Algorithms - Take notes from page 137 109
Classroom Practice for Teaching Skills q Carefully structure discovery learning to ensure that students learn specific skills (organize examples) q Plan for DISTRIBUTED practice to emphasize the importance of a skill 110
Research, Theory, and Classroom Practice on Processes q Students should practice the parts of a process in the context of the overall process q Teachers should emphasize the metacognitive control of processes Ø Ø Ø Plenty of guided practice Self-monitoring by students Encourage generalization 111
Looking closer. . . Chapter 12 Using the Nine Categories in Instructional Planning 112
Quick Review of Nine Categories of BEST PRACTICE q q q q q Identifying similarities and differences Summarizing and note taking Reinforcing effort and providing recognition Homework and practice Nonlinguistic representations Cooperative learning Setting objectives and providing feedback Generating and testing hypotheses Questions, cues and advance organizers 113
At the Beginning of a Unit of Instruction q Teacher sets clearning goals (Chapter 8) q q Fairly narrow focus, but not too specific Students identify and record their own learning goals (Chapter 8) q q Make connections between the topic of study and personal life Interact with peers as they set goals and discuss ways to achieve them 114
During a Unit of Instruction q Monitor learning goals q q q Provide students feedback and help them self-assess their progress toward achieving their goals. Teach and use rubrics as a tool. (Chapter 8) Ask students to keep track of their effort and it’s impact on achievement. Students share with each other. (Chapter 4) Periodically celebrate legitimate progress toward learning goals. (Chapter 4) 115
During a Unit of Instruction q Introduce New Knowledge q q Activate prior knowledge (Chapter 2 and 10) Provide an advance organizer (Chapter 10) Ø Ø q Expository Advance Organizers Narrative Advance Organizers Skimming as a Form of Advance Organizer Graphic Advance Organizer Compare what is newly learned to what was already known (Chapter 2) Ø Compare/Contrast (Chapter 2) and Cooperative Learning Discussion (Chapter 7) 116
During a Unit of Instruction q Introducing New Knowledge q Have students summarize and take notes on the information being taught (Chapter 3) Ø Ø Ø Highlight critical information Teach for deep understanding Understand the structure of the information so you can better summarize it • • Topic-Restriction-Illustration Frame (page 37) Definition Frame (page 38) Argumentation Frame (page 39) Problem/Solution Frame (page 40) 117
During a Unit of Instruction q Use nonlinguistic representations to teach and have students represent what they are learning in nonlinguistic ways. (Chapter 6) • graphic representations • symbols • associate an image with new vocabulary (Chapter 11) 118
During a Unit of Instruction q Alternate the mode of learning so that sometimes your students work in small cooperative groups and other times as individuals. Aim for active engagement. (Chapter 7) 119
During a Unit of Instruction q Practice, Review, Apply Knowledge q Assign homework that requires students to practice, review, and apply what they have learned; however be sure to give students explicit feedback on the accuracy of all homework. (Chapter 5) Ø Ø Ø Grade “important, newly-taught concept” work and give feedback about conceptual, skill, or process errors. (Chapters 4 and 8) Give credit/no credit for most practice and review work; provide opportunities for self-checking (overhead or key) and ask students to graph their own accuracy and effort. (Chapter 5) Provide specific feedback for “application of knowledge” work. 120
During a Unit of Instruction q Practice, Review, and Apply Knowledge q Engage students in long-term projects that involve generating and testing hypotheses. (Chapter 9) Ø Ø Inductive vs. deductive reasoning Justifying your rationale, esp. in writing, deepens understanding 121
During a Unit of Instruction q Notes are a “Work in Progress” q Students revise the linguistic and nonlinguistic representations in their notes as they refine their understanding of the content. (Chapters 3 and 6) 122
At the End of a Unit of Instruction q q q Provide students with clear assessments of their progress on each learning goal. (Chapters 4 and 8) Students self-assess on each learning goal and compare results to teacher assessments. (Chapters 4 and 8) Student articulate what they have learned about the content and themselves as learners. (Chapters 4 and 8) 123
Excellent Instruction is the KEY q There is no single determinant of student success more critical than the teachers instruction. q q q Mortimore and Sammons (1987) found that teaching had 6 to 10 times as much impact on achievement as all other factors combined. Odden and Wallace (2003) conclude that “improved classroom instruction is the prime factor to produce student achievement gains. ” Sanders & Horn (1994) found that three years of effective teaching accounts on average for an improvement of 35 to 50 percentile points. (Schmoker, 2006) 124
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