Classroom Instruction That Works ResearchBased Strategies for Increasing
Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement Robert J. Marzano, Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock
Identifying Similarities and Differences “Research has found these mental operations to be basic to human thought, they might be considered the core of all learning. ” Marzano, Pickering & Pollock 2001
Strategy Effect Size N N N . 20 is a relatively SMALL effect size. 50 can be considered a MEDIUM effect size. 80 can be considered LARGE size Similarities and Differences: 1. 61 Effect Size 45 Percentile Gain
Similarities and Differences analogy teacher directed metaphor differences similarities contrast classify graphic organizer compare
Generalizations from Research and Theory 1. Presenting students with explicit guidance in identifying similarities and differences enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge
Generalizations from Research and Theory 2. Asking students to independently identify similarities and differences enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge.
Generalizations from Research and Theory 3. Representing similarities and differences in graphic or symbolic form enhances students’ understanding of and ability to use knowledge.
Generalizations from Research and Theory 4. Identification of similarities and differences can be accomplished in a variety of ways. The identification of similarities and differences is a highly robust activity.
Comparing: Identifying similarities and differences • Comparing --similarities • Contrasting--differences Classifying: Grouping based on shared characteristics
Metaphors: Identifying a pattern in a topic and finding another topic that is different at the literal level but has the same pattern at a more abstract level. Analogies: Drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect.
Reflecting on Current Beliefs and Practice MWhat is my instructional purpose when I ask my students to compare, classify, and create analogies and metaphors? MWhat are the benefits for my students in using these strategies? MWhat are the challenges I have encountered when I’ve used these strategies?
Common Practices in Identifying Similarities and Differences NTeacher directed explicit guidance N Student directed activities N Graphic or symbolic representations N Ability to choose from a variety of strategies
Comparing to identify similarities and differences N Use to deepen understanding of content N Use in all subject areas
Classroom Practice 1. Give students model for process 2. Use familiar content to teach steps for comparing 3. Use graphic organizers 4. Guide students as needed
1. Give students model for process N Go beyond automatic comparisons to teach a systematic process N Students are responsible for using the process N Teach students to identify important characteristics for comparing
Steps for Comparing 1. 2. 3. Choose the items to compare. Select the characteristics you want to compare. Using these characteristics describe how the items are the same and different.
2. Use familiar content to teach steps for comparing N Common comparisons can clarify the steps used. N Students can later apply to content information.
3. Use graphic organizers N Venn diagram N Comparison matrix
4. Guide students as needed N Move from teacher directed to student directed comparisons.
Another comparing tool… Semantic Feature Analysis Used in vocabulary to learn a word’s meaning by comparing its features to those of other words from the same category or class. Category Item #1 Category Item #2 Feature
Classifying N Organizing items into groups based on how they are the same. N Critical skill is identifying the rules for including an item in a class or category.
Recommendations for Classroom Practice N Give students a model for the process N Use familiar content to each students the steps in classifying N Give students graphic organizers for classifying N Guide students as needed
The Model of Classifying Step 1: Identify the items to classify Step 2: Determine shared attributes of the items Step 3: Create a category by describing the attributes of the items to be included Step 4: Create additional categories based on attributes Step 5: Repeat the steps until all items have been placed in a category
Another comparing or classifying tool… Content Frame N N Use to understand how ideas are related Visual representation of content Way to organize information that improves comprehension and retention of science and social studies information Two questions to ask: N N What are the important categories of information? How might these categories be subdivided?
Word Sort Activities Closed Sort-teacher directs the categories that are generated Open Sort-student directs categories generated
Classifying Self-Assessment N Checklist N Grades N Rubric N Grades N K-2 3 -12 Teacher Rubric N Grades 9 -12
Four Levels of Metacognitive Thought 1. Tacit Use: without thinking about it 2. Aware Use: aware that and when 3. Strategic Use: conscious strategies 4. Reflective Use: reflects before, during and after Swartz and Perkins (1989)
Progression Toward Independent Learning Over Time Basic Skills of Independence Structured Independence Shared Independence Self-Guided Learning
Reflection Consider the information about levels of metacognition and the Progression Toward Independent Learning Over Time continuum. What are the ramifications as you plan comparing or classifying tasks for your students?
Creating Metaphors Two items that are not literally the same but can share an abstract concept For example: Ngrass and children (grow) Na tree and Hulk Hogan (strong) Nthe sun and a smile (brighten your day)
What is a metaphor? N N Greek: carry something across or transfer Most dictionaries and textbooks: a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or similarity, without using “like” or “as” Kenneth Burke: a device for seeing something in terms of something else John Searle: understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another
Creating Metaphors 1. Identify a general or basic pattern in a specific topic. 2. Select another topic that is different at the literal level, but has the same general pattern.
Recommendations for Classroom Practice N Give students a model for the process N N Cell as a factory DNA molecule is a ladder Eye to a camera Heart to a force pump
“What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion. The top quite gone except for a sort of hinge of skin…. A celebration this is. Out of a gap a million soldiers run, redcoats every one. Sylvia Plath, “Cut”
Recommendations for Classroom Practice N Use familiar content to create metaphors. N Common metaphors help students understand the steps in creating a metaphor.
Recommendations for Classroom Practice N Use graphic organizers for creating metaphors N Guide students as needed.
Teacher directed metaphor task 1. Read the story. 2. Review the literal parts of the metaphor and the abstract relationship in the model. 3. Complete the metaphor.
Student directed metaphor task Identify the element and use the information to determine the literal pattern. Record the basic information in a general or abstract way. Find a new element to which the literal pattern applies.
Analogies N N N Identifying relationships between two concepts See how things that appear to be dissimilar are similar Increase understanding of new information
Analogies N N Make connections between things that seem different Take A: B: : C: D form Samples: Jwarp: wood: : blister: paint Jarid: humid: : desert: swamp
Analogies N N Most complex format for identifying similarities and differences Deal with “relationships between relationships”
Recommendations for Classroom Practice 1. 2. 3. 4. Giving students a model for the process Using familiar content to teach students the steps in creating analogies Giving students graphic organizers for creating analogies Giving students guidance as needed
Analogies Step 1: Identify the connection between two words Step 2: Identify another pair of words that have the same relationship
Analogies Scaffolding Teacher Directed-Provide all elements and have students describe relationship Student Directed-Teacher provides one set of elements and students provide the second element as well as the abstract connection.
Teacher-Directed Analogies bicycle is to skateboard Relationship: __________________ rowboat is to canoe
Teacher Directed Analogies Rodin is to Monet Relationship: __________________ sculptor is to
Student-Directed Analogies A. W. O. L. is to soldier Relationship: __________________ is to
Student-Directed Analogies is to Relationship: __________________ is to
Similarities and Differences analogy teacher directed metaphor differences similarities contrast classify graphic organizer compare
Successful Implementation The key to all learning is that the student is able to pull the strategies and apply them to situations as necessary. The graphic organizers are tools, but the student has not truly learned until the pattern of thinking becomes an independent skill.
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