Classical theories on human nature Aristotle Plato PLATO
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Classical theories on human nature Aristotle & Plato
PLATO (427 -347 BCE) z Basic interest: The world of truth (Absolutes) beyond the unreliable senses. z -> Ideas or Forms are beyond phenomena z -> Everything in the empirical world is a manifestation of a pure Form (Idea) (Chairs, rocks, cats, and people are inferior manifestations of pure forms). z -> Sensory experience --> Ignorance or opinion. z -> True knowledge: Grasping forms by rational thought.
WORLD OF Truth OBJECTS STATES Forms Knowledge Mathematics Thinking Visible things Belief WORLD OF Imagining Phenomena Images
Platonism in psychology? z Are personality factors more real than manifestations? z How real are the five factors? z “We believe it is an empirical fact, like the fact that there are seven continents on earth and eight American presidents from Virginia” (Mc. Crae, & John, 1992, p. 194).
Story of the Cave: z “Story of the Cave” is part of “The Republic” Prisoners represent humans who confuse the shadowy world of sense experience with reality. z Interpretations: z Human condition / human nature: Are we condemned to remain prisoners of sense experience / appearance? z Historical interpretation: Socrates' life. z Christian interpretation: Jesus Christ.
The Nature of the Soul z How many parts does the soul have? z Soul has three parts: (a) rational component (the soul reflects) (immortal) (b) spirited, courageous component (mortal) (c) appetitive component (desires) (mortal) z True knowledge: Person must suppress the needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits. z Differential theory of human nature: In some individuals: appetitive aspect of the soul dominates -> workers and slaves; in others the courageous aspect of the soul dominates -> soldiers; and in still others the rational aspect dominates -> philosopher kings.
Plato’s Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge z How does one come to know the forms if they cannot be known through sensory experience? z -> The soul is implanted in the body. It dwells in pure and complete knowledge; that is, it dwells among the forms. z -> After the soul enters the body, this knowledge begins to be contaminated by sensory information. z -> True knowledge -> ignore sensory experience. All knowledge comes from remembering the experiences the soul had before entering the body.
Plato on Gender z Was Plato a feminist? z Equal opportunity but difference in ability. z One education for both sexes, for example, in training to become a guardian. z Both sexes should be taught the art of war, carry arms, ride on horseback, and receive the same treatment. z Women have the same nature as men -> every occupation should be accessible to them. z The difference: Women were not quite as strong as men.
ARISTOTLE (384 -322 BCE) z Aristotle was the first philosopher to treat extensively topics that were later to become part of psychology. z Tutor to Philip's son, Alexander, who was to become Alexander the Great. z Athens. Founded a school: Lyceum (empirical and philosophical)
The works of Aristotle z Collected works: Arranged many centuries after his death (e. g. , physics, metaphysics) z Topics: z Logic, dialectic, metaphysics (founded the field of logic; e. g. syllogism). z Science and philosophy of science z Psychology and philosophy of mind y Soul, senses, memory, sleep, dreams, developmental stages, death, etc. y The psychological master work: De Anima (On the Soul). z Ethics and politics z Aesthetics
Divergence from Plato z Aristotle: Forms do not have a separate existence from particulars. z Interested in studying the things in the empirical world and their functions. z Nothing can exist without matter, and matter cannot exist without form.
On knowledge z Every kind of knowledge is to be prized. z Psyche is a substance capable of receiving knowledge. z Three kinds of knowledge: y Theoretical knowledge. y Practical knowledge. y Productive knowledge. z Without sensation thought is not possible. Compared the mind to a blank writing tablet (tabula rasa). z Not the senses fool us but our incorrect interpretations of the sensory information. z However, knowledge is not possible through sense perception alone, since the senses give us only particulars. z Deduction and induction.
“Cause”and Teleology Everything has four causes: z Material cause. What an object or thing is made of. z Formal cause. The particular form or pattern of an object. z Efficient cause. The force that transforms the matter into a certain form. z Final cause. The purpose for which an object exists. y Aristotle was a teleologist: He believed there was a plan or design to the universe. Developing and moving to an end, the final cause of motion
Aristotle's Psychology: De Anima z Psyche: Of primary interest to Aristotle z All knowledge is valuable but that knowledge of the psyche is to be prized above all. z Psyche is not confined to humans alone. Psyche marks the distinction, not between thinking and unthinking beings, but between the organic and the inorganic. z Body and psyche are an inseparable unit. z Aristotle: Psyche is in the heart. Rejects the Platonic doctrine of the brain as the organ of the psyche. z He divides functions into growing, sensing, remembering, desiring, reacting, and thinking.
The Hierarchy of Souls z Three kinds of souls: z Vegetative souls: Possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the assimilation of food, and reproduction. z Sensitive souls: Possessed by animals and people, but not by plants. The ability to sense is a means for distinguishing an animal from a plant. Locomotion, sensation and memory. z Rational souls: Possessed only by humans. It provides all of the functions of the other two souls, and in addition allows thinking or rational thought.
Psychological Topics z 1. Growing z 2. Sensing z Possessed by animals and people, but not by plants. Five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. z Common sense: synthesizing the sensory elements into perceptual units (perception and consciousness). y Sensory information: Isolated experiences y Common sense: Synthesized experience y Passive reason: Utilization of synthesized experience y Active reason: Abstraction of principles from synthesized experience z Sleep: Caused by fatigue of the common sense. z Dreaming: Sensory stimulation that occurred during the waking state is carried over into sleeping.
Psychological Topics z z z 3. Remembering Effect of sensing that persists after the object is removed. Remembering: Spontaneous reproduction of past perceptions. Recall: Active search to recover these past perceptions. Laws of association: Similarity, contrast, frequency, and contiguity.
Psychological Topics z 4. Desiring and Reacting z Pleasure and pain follow upon sensing. Some objects are perceived as pleasurable, and others as unpleasurable. z Once these feelings are experienced, desire is introduced. When an activity is pleasurable, it tends to be exercised
Psychological Topics z 5. Thinking z The human being is the only animal that thinks.
Middle ground z Golden mean: The desirable middle ground between any two extremes. z Examples: Appetite, humor, spending money, etc. z Education: The right sort of habituation for establishing the virtue of character must avoid excess and deficiency. z Age: Middle age is more desirable than youth or old age. z Q: Is the middle ground always the best choice?
Happiness z An end in itself. z It is not amusement but virtuous action. z Theoretical study is the supreme element.
Politics z Humans have a natural desire to leave behind them an image of themselves. z Man is by nature a political animal. z Man is the only animal endowed with speech. z Some men are by nature free, some men are by nature slaves. z Comment: Rhetoric of “by nature”.
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