Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Chapter 6

� Classical Conditioning � Operant Conditioning � Observational Learning Chapter 6 (Learning) Overview

n. A Learning relatively permanent change in ◦ Behavior ◦ Knowledge ◦ Capability ◦

�A type of learning through which one organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. § Stimulus: any event in the environment to which an organism responds. § Reflex: an involuntary response to a stimulus Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Discovered by accident during saliva experiment by Ivan Pavlov n Observed salivary response occurring before presentation of food when dogs: n ◦ Heard footsteps of lab assistants ◦ Heard food dishes rattle ◦ Saw the attendant who fed them ◦ Spotted their food Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Process of Classical Conditioning n Unconditioned response (UCR) ◦ Response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning n. Salivation n. Startle n. Contraction of pupil to light n. Eye blink response n Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ◦ Stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without learning n. Food n. Loud noise n. Light in eye n. Puff of air in eye Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Classical Conditioning n Conditioned stimulus (CS) ◦ Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR n Conditioned response (CR) ◦ Learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Changing Conditioned Responses n Extinction ◦ Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS with out the UCS ◦ Conditioned reflex is not truly lost, but only suppressed. ◦ Extinction does not appear to lead to unlearning. n Spontaneous recovery ◦ Reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the CS. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 5. 2 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery in Pavlov’s Laboratory This demonstration involved a dog that had already been conditioned to salivate (the CR) to just the sight of the meat powder (the CS). During the extinction phase, the CS was repeatedly presented at three minute intervals and held just out of the dog’s reach. As you can see in the graph, over the course of six trials the amount of saliva secreted by the dog quickly decreased to zero. This indicates that extinction had occurred. After a two-hour rest period, the CS was presented again. At the sight of the meat powder, the dog secreted saliva once more, evidence for the spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response. Source: Data adapted from Pavlov (1927).

Changing Conditioned Responses n Generalization ◦ Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS n Discrimination ◦ Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What is Stimulus Discrimination?

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning n Initiated experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned in 1919 ◦ ‘Little Albert’ ◦ Conditioned to be afraid of white rats and other white objects Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning Four major factors 1. How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus 2. The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus 3. The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus 4. The amount of time that elapses between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Classical Conditioning in Daily Life Fear Responses ◦ Dental visits n. Sound of the drills and suction n. Smell of the office n. Sight of the chair and light n Drug Use ◦ The CS associated with drug use lead individuals to seek out those substances ◦ Counselors urge recovering addicts to avoid any stimulus cues (people, places, and things) n Advertising ◦ A neutral product is associated with people, objects, or situations consumers like to elicit a positive response n Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Classical Conditioning in Early Life: White Coats and Doctor Visits Most infants receive several vaccinations in their first few years of life. The painful injection (a UCS) elicits fear and distress (a UCR). After a few office visits, the clinic, nurse, or even the medical staff’s white lab coats can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits fear and distress—even in the absence of a painful injection.

Classical conditioning example

Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904– 1990) As a young adult, Skinner had hoped to become a writer. When he graduated from college, he set up a study in the attic of his parents’ home and waited for inspiration to strike. After a year of “frittering” away his time, he decided that there were better ways to learn about human nature (Moore, 2005 a). As Skinner (1967) later wrote, “A writer might portray human behavior accurately, but he did not understand it. I was to remain interested in human behavior, but the literary method had failed me; I would turn to the scientific. . The relevant science appeared to be psychology, though I had only the vaguest idea of what that meant. ”

Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: ◦ Increase or decrease the frequency of a response ◦ Shape an entirely new response n Reinforcer n ◦ Anything that: n. Follows a response and strengthens it n. Increases the probability that it will occur Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. B. F. Skinner

Reinforcement n Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated ◦ The series of behaviors involved in using an ATM ◦ Paying bills on time avoids steep latepayment fees Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reinforcement n Primary Reinforcer ◦ A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning n. Food n. Water n. Sleep n Secondary Reinforcer ◦ Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers n. Money n. Praise n. Applause Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcers, like water when you’re thirsty, are naturally reinforcing—you don’t have to learn their value. In contrast, the value of conditioned reinforcers, like grades and awards, has to be learned through their association with primary reinforcers. But conditioned reinforcers can be just as reinforcing as primary reinforcers. As proof, a beaming Lei Wang kisses the gold medal he earned for China at the World Fencing Championship in Turin, Italy.

Reinforcement n Positive reinforcement ◦ Any pleasant or desirable consequence that: n. Follows a response n. Increases the probability that the response will be repeated ◦ Roughly the same as a reward n. You smile as you walk down the street n. People smile back at you and say nice things n. You want to smile at everyone

Reinforcement Negative reinforcement ◦ Termination of an unpleasant condition after a response ◦ Increases the probability that the response will be repeated n. Turning on air conditioning to avoid the heat n. Getting out of bed to turn off a leaky faucet n. Heroin addicts will do almost anything to get another fix and avoid the pains of withdrawal Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Negative Reinforcement Studying with classmates reduces the nervousness felt about an upcoming exam. Responding to test anxiety by joining a study group, studying more, and discussing the exam with other students helps alleviate text anxiety. Thus, test anxiety is an important negative reinforcement. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Positive reinforcement involves a behavior that leads to a reinforcing or rewarding event. In contrast, negative reinforcement involves behavior that leads to the avoidance of or escape from an aversive or punishing event. Ultimately, both positive and negative reinforcement involve outcomes that strengthen future behavior.

Shaping Behavior Shaping n Consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response n Gradually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal Successive approximations n A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response. ◦ Parents shape children by praising them each time they show improvement ◦ Circus animals have learned feats ◦ Pigeons learned to bowl and play piano Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning 1. • 2. • • 3. • • The magnitude of reinforcement As the magnitude increases, acquisition of a response is faster, rate of responding is higher, and resistance to extinction is greater The immediacy of reinforcement Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate A little delay obscures the relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer The level of motivation of the learner When food is a reinforcer, a hungry animal learns faster than a full animal If you are motivated to learn tennis you will practice more Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Punishment The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus,

Punishment Positive and negative punishment n Positive punishment ◦ Behavior decreases from an added consequence n n Students stop staying up late after sleeping through an important exam Negative Punishment ◦ Behavior decreases from removing a consequence ◦ Usually involves the loss of something desirable n A driver speeds less often after suffering a 6 -month suspension Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Disadvantages of Punishment ◦ Punishment does not extinguish an undesirable behavior n Suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent is present n The behavior is likely to continue when the threat of punishment is removed or in settings where punishment is not likely ◦ Repeat offenders in the criminal justice system ◦ Punishment indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behavior n Punishment should be used in conjunction with reinforcement or rewards for appropriate behavior ◦ Punish a child for hitting with time-out then reward them later when they are playing appropriately Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Effects of Spanking Defined as hitting a child on the buttocks with an open hand without causing a bruise or physical harm, spanking is a common form of discipline in the United States (Kazdin & Benjet, 2003). Some researchers believe that mild and occasional spanking is not necessarily harmful, especially when used as a backup for other forms of discipline (Baumrind & others, 2002). However, in a wide-ranging meta-analysis, psychologist Elizabeth Gershoff (2002) concluded that physical punishment is associated with increased aggressiveness, delinquency, and antisocial behavior in the child. Other negative effects include poor parent–child relationships and an increased risk that parental disciplinary tactics might escalate into physical abuse. As Skinner (1974) cautioned, gaining immediate compliance through punishment must be weighed against punishment’s negative long-term effects.

Punishment and negative reinforcement are two different processes that produce opposite effects on a given behavior. Punishment decreases the future performance of the behavior, while negative reinforcement increases it.

�Sitcom example Operant conditioning

Observational Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior ◦ Often involves imitation n Modeling ◦ Another name for observational learning ◦ Improved learning when: n Several sessions of observation precede attempts to perform the behavior n Repeated in the early stages of practicing the behavior n Model ◦ A person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Albert Bandura (b. 1925) Bandura contends that most human behavior is acquired through observational learning rather than through trial and error or direct experience of the consequences of our actions. Watching and processing information about the actions of others, including the consequences that occur, influence the likelihood that behavior will be imitated.

�Four key processes: ◦ Attention-to person’s behavior and it’s consequences ◦ Retention-store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in memory. ◦ Reproduction-convert stored mental images into overt behavior. ◦ Motivation-unlikely to reproduce an observed behavior unless you are motivated to do so Observational Learning

The Classic Bobo Doll Experiment Bandura demonstrated the powerful influence of observational learning in a series of experiments conducted in the early 1960 s. Children watched a film showing an adult playing aggressively with an inflated Bobo doll. If they saw the adult rewarded with candy for the aggressive behavior or experience no consequences, the children were much more likely to imitate the behavior than if they saw the adult punished for the aggressive behavior (Bandura, 1965; Bandura & others, 1963).