Classic Crypto 1 Overview q We briefly consider

Classic Crypto 1

Overview q We briefly consider the following classic (pen and paper) ciphers o o q Transposition ciphers Substitution ciphers One-time pad Codebook These were all chosen for a reason o We see same principles in modern ciphers Classic Crypto 2

Transposition Ciphers q In transposition ciphers, we transpose (scramble) the plaintext letters o The scrambled text is the ciphertext o The transposition is the key q Corresponds to Shannon’s principle of diffusion (more about this later) o This idea is widely used in modern ciphers Classic Crypto 3

Scytale Spartans, circa 500 BC q Wind strip of leather around a rod q Write message across the rod T H E T I M E H A S C O M E T H E W A L R U S S A I D T O T A L K O F M A N Y T H I N G S q When unwrapped, letters are scrambled TSATAHCLONEORTYTMUATIESLHMTS… q Classic Crypto 4

Scytale q Suppose Alice and Bob use Scytale to encrypt a message o What is the key? o How hard is it for Trudy to break without key? q Suppose many different rod diameters are available to Alice and Bob… o How hard is it for Trudy to break a message? o Can Trudy attack messages automatically—without manually examining each putative decrypt? Classic Crypto 5

Columnar Transposition Put plaintext into rows of matrix then read ciphertext out of columns q For example, suppose matrix is 3 x 4 q o Plaintext: SEETHELIGHT o Ciphertext: SHGEEHELTTIX q Same effect as Scytale o What is the key? Classic Crypto 6

Keyword Columnar Transposition q For example o Plaintext: CRYPTOISFUN o Matrix 3 x 4 and keyword MATH o Ciphertext: ROUPSXCTFYIN What is the key? q How many keys are there? q Classic Crypto 7

Keyword Columnar Transposition How can Trudy cryptanalyze this cipher? q Consider the ciphertext q VOESA IVENE MRTNL EANGE WTNIM HTMLL ADLTR NISHO DWOEH Matrix is n x m for some n and m q Since 45 letters, n m = 45 q How many cases to try? q How will Trudy know when she is correct? q Classic Crypto 8

Keyword Columnar Transposition q The ciphertext is VOESA IVENE MRTNL EANGE WTNIM HTMLL ADLTR NISHO DWOEH q If encryption matrix was 9 x 5, then… Classic Crypto 9

Cryptanalysis: Lesson I q Exhaustive key search o Always an option for Trudy q If keyspace is too large, such an attack will not succeed in a reasonable time o Or it will have a low probability of success A large keyspace is necessary for security q But, large keyspace is not sufficient… q Classic Crypto 10

Double Transposition q Plaintext: columns row 0 row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4 0 A A X X W 1 T C A D N ATTACK AT DAWN 2 T K T A X q Ciphertext: Permute rows and columns row 2 row 4 row 0 row 3 row 1 0 X W A X A 2 T X T A K 1 A N T D C XTAWXNATTXADAKC q Key? o 5 x 3 matrix, perms (2, 4, 0, 3, 1) and (0, 2, 1) Classic Crypto 11

Double Transposition How can Trudy attack double transposition? q Spse Trudy sees 45 -letter ciphertext q Then how many keys? q o Size of matrix: 3 x 15, 15 x 3, 5 x 9, or 9 x 5 o A lot of possible permutations! 5! 9! 225 and 3! 15! 242 Size of keyspace is greater than 243 q Is there a shortcut attack? q Classic Crypto 12

Double Transposition q q Shortcut attack on double transposition? Suppose ciphertext is ILILWEAHREOMEESANNDDVEGMIERWEHVEMTOSTTAONN TNH q q q Suppose Trudy guesses matrix is 9 x 5 column 0 1 Then Trudy has: Now what? Try all perms? 5! 9! 225 Is there a better way? Classic Crypto row 0 row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4 row 5 row 6 row 7 row 8 I E O A V E V S N L A M N E R E T N 2 I H E N G W M T T 3 L R E D M E T A N 4 W E S D I H O O H 13

Double Transposition Shortcut attack on double transposition? q Trudy tries “columns first” strategy q column row 0 row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4 row 5 row 6 row 7 row 8 q 0 I E O A V E V S N 1 L A M N E R E T N 2 I H E N G W M T T 3 L R E D M E T A N 4 W E S D I H O O H Permute columns column row 0 row 1 row 2 row 3 row 4 row 5 row 6 row 7 row 8 2 I H E N G W M T T 4 W E S D I H O O H 0 I E O A V E V S N 1 L A M N E R E T N 3 L R E D M E T A N Now what? Classic Crypto 14

Cryptanalysis: Lesson II q Divide and conquer o Trudy attacks part of the keyspace o A great shortcut attack strategy Requires careful analysis of algorithm q We will see this again and again in the attacks discussed later q Of course, cryptographers try to prevent divide and conquer attacks q Classic Crypto 15

Substitution Ciphers q In substitution ciphers, we replace the plaintext letters with other letters o The resulting text is the ciphertext o The substitution rule is the key q Corresponds to Shannon’s principle of confusion (more on this later) o This idea is used in modern ciphers Classic Crypto 16

Ceasar’s Cipher q Plaintext: FOURSCOREANDSEVENYEARSAGO q Key: Plaintext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C q Ciphertext: IRXUVFRUHDAGVHYHABHDUVDIR q More succinctly, key is “shift by 3” Classic Crypto 17

Ceasar’s Cipher q Trudy loves the Ceasar’s cipher… q Suppose ciphertext is VSRQJHEREVTXDUHSDQWU Plaintext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C q Then plaintext is SPONGEBOBSQUAREPANTS Classic Crypto 18

Simple Substitution q Caesar’s cipher is trivial if we adhere to Kerckhoffs’ Principle q We want a substitution cipher with lots of keys q What to do? q Generalization of Caesar’s cipher… Classic Crypto 19

Simple Substitution q Key is some permutation of letters q Need not be a shift q For example Plaintext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Ciphertext J I C A X S E Y V D K W B Q T Z R H F M P N U L G O q Then 26! 288 possible keys q That’s lots of keys! Classic Crypto 20

Cryptanalysis of Simple Substitution Trudy know a simple substitution is used q Can she find the key given ciphertext: q PBFPVYFBQXZTYFPBFEQJHDXXQVAPTPQJKTOYQWIPBVWLXT OXBTFXQWAXBVCXQWAXFQJVWLEQNTOZQGGQLFXQWAKV WLXQWAEBIPBFXFQVXGTVJVWLBTPQWAEBFPBFHCVLXBQU FEVWLXGDPEQVPQGVPPBFTIXPFHXZHVFAGFOTHFEFBQUF TDHZBQPOTHXTYFTODXQHFTDPTOGHFQPBQWAQJJTODXQ HFOQPWTBDHHIXQVAPBFZQHCFWPFHPBFIPBQWKFABVYYD ZBOTHPBQPQJTQOTOGHFQAPBFEQJHDXXQVAVXEBQPEFZB VFOJIWFFACFCCFHQWAUVWFLQHGFXVAFXQHFUFHILTTAV WAFFAWTEVOITDHFHFQAITIXPFHXAFQHEFZQWGFLVWPTOF FA Classic Crypto 21

Cryptanalysis of Simple Substitution Trudy cannot try all 288 possible keys q Can she be more clever? q Statistics! q English letter frequency counts: q Classic Crypto 22

Cryptanalysis of Simple Substitution q Ciphertext: PBFPVYFBQXZTYFPBFEQJHDXXQVAPTPQJKTOYQWIPBVWLXTOXBTF XQWAXBVCXQWAXFQJVWLEQNTOZQGGQLFXQWAKVWLXQWAEBI PBFXFQVXGTVJVWLBTPQWAEBFPBFHCVLXBQUFEVWLXGDPEQV PQGVPPBFTIXPFHXZHVFAGFOTHFEFBQUFTDHZBQPOTHXTYFTO DXQHFTDPTOGHFQPBQWAQJJTODXQHFOQPWTBDHHIXQVAPBFZ QHCFWPFHPBFIPBQWKFABVYYDZBOTHPBQPQJTQOTOGHFQAPB FEQJHDXXQVAVXEBQPEFZBVFOJIWFFACFCCFHQWAUVWFLQHGF XVAFXQHFUFHILTTAVWAFFAWTEVOITDHFHFQAITIXPFHXAFQHEF ZQWGFLVWPTOFFA q Ciphertext frequency counts: A B C D E F G H I J K L MN O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z 21 26 6 10 12 51 10 25 10 9 Classic Crypto 3 10 0 1 15 28 42 0 0 27 4 24 22 28 6 8 23

Cryptanalysis: Lesson III q Statistical analysis o Statistics might reveal info about key q Ciphertext should appear random q But randomness is not easy o Difficult to define random (entropy) q Cryptographers work hard to prevent statistical attacks Classic Crypto 24

Poly-Alphabetic Substitution q Like a simple substitution, but permutation (“alphabet”) changes o Often, a new alphabet for each letter q Very common in classic ciphers o Vigenere cipher is an example o Discuss Vigenere later in this section q Used Classic Crypto in WWII-era cipher machines 25

Affine Cipher q Number the letters 0 thru 25 o A is 0, B is 1, C is 2, etc. q Then affine cipher encryption is defined by ci = api + b (mod 26) o Where pi is the ith plaintext letter o And a and b are constants o Require that gcd(a, 26) = 1 (why? ) Classic Crypto 26

Affine Cipher q Encryption: ci = api + b (mod 26) q Decryption: pi = a– 1(ci – b) (mod 26) q Keyspace size? o Keyspace size is 26 · (26) = 312 o Too small to be practical Classic Crypto 27

Vigenere Cipher q Key is of the form K = (k 0, k 1, …, kn-1) o Where each ki {0, 1, 2, …, 25} Encryption ci = pi + ki (mod n) (mod 26) q Decryption pi = ci – ki (mod n) (mod 26) q Nothing tricky here! q Just a repeating sequence of (shift by n) simple substitutions q Classic Crypto 28

Vigenere Cipher q For example, suppose key is MATH o That is, K = (12, 0, 19, 7), since M is letter 12, and so on Plaintext: q Ciphertext: q Encrypt: q S 18 +12 4 E SECRETMESSAGE EEVYQTFLESTNQ E C R E T M E S S A G E 4 2 17 4 19 12 4 18 18 0 6 4 0 19 7 12 4 21 24 16 19 5 11 4 18 19 13 16 (mod 26) E V Y Q T F L E S T N Q Classic Crypto 29

Vigenere Cipher q Vigenere is just a series of k simple substitution ciphers q Should be able to do k simple substitution attacks o Provided enough ciphertext q But how to determine k (key length)? q Index of coincidence… Classic Crypto 30

Index of Coincidence q Assume ciphertext is English letters q Let n 0 be number of As, n 1 number of Bs, …, n 25 number of Zs in ciphertext q Let n = n 0 + n 1 + … + n 25 q Define index of coincidence q What Classic Crypto does this measure? 31

Index of Coincidence Gives the probability that 2 randomly selected letters are the same q For plain English, prob. 2 letter are same: q o p 02 + p 12 + … + p 252 ≈ 0. 065, where pi is probability of ith letter Then for simple substitution, I ≈ 0. 065 q For random letters, each pi = 1/26 q o Then p 02 + p 12 + … + p 252 ≈ 0. 03846 q Then I ≈ 0. 03846 for poly-alphabetic substitution with a very long keyword Classic Crypto 32

Index of Coincidence How to use this to estimate length of keyword in Vigenere cipher? q Suppose keyword is length k, message is length n q o Ciphertext in matrix with k columns, n/k rows q Select 2 letters from same columns o Like selecting from simple substitution q Select 2 letters from different columns o Like selecting random letters Classic Crypto 33

Index of Coincidence Suppose k columns and n/k rows q Approximate number of matching pairs from same column, but 2 different rows: q q Approximate number of matching pairs from 2 different columns, and any two rows: Classic Crypto 34

Index of Coincidence q Approximate index of coincidence by: q Solve for k to find: q Use n and I (known from ciphertext) to approximate length of Vigenere keyword Classic Crypto 35

Index of Coincidence: Bottom Line q. A crypto breakthrough when invented o By William F. Friedman in 1920 s q Useful against classical and WWIIera ciphers q Incidence of coincidence is a wellknown statistical test o Many other statistical tests exists Classic Crypto 36

Hill Cipher Hill cipher is not related to small mountains q Invented by Lester Hill in 1929 q o A pre-modern block cipher Idea is to create a substitution cipher with a large “alphabet” q All else being equal (which it never is) cipher should be stronger than simple substitution q Classic Crypto 37

Hill Cipher Plaintext, p 0, p 1, p 2, … q Each pi is block of n consecutive letters q o As a column vector Let A be n x n invertible matrix, mod 26 q Then ciphertext block ci is given by q o ci = A pi (mod 26) o Decryption: pi = A– 1 ci (mod 26) q The matrix A is the key Classic Crypto 38

Hill Cipher Example Let n = 2 and q Plaintext MEETMEHERE = (12, 4, 4, 19, 12, 4, 7, 4, 17, 4) q Then q q q And Ciphertext: (4, 22, 23, 9, 4, 22, 24, 19, 10, 25) = EWXJEWYTKZ Classic Crypto 39

Hill Cipher Cryptanalysis Trudy suspects Alice and Bob are using Hill cipher, with n x n matrix A q Suppose. Trudy knows n plaintext blocks q o Plaintext blocks p 0, p 1, …, pn-1 o Ciphertext blocks c 0, c 1, …, cn-1 Let P be matrix with columns p 0, p 1, …, pn-1 q Let C be matrix with columns c 0, c 1, …, cn-1 q Then AP = C and A = CP– 1 if P– 1 exists q Classic Crypto 40

Cryptanalysis: Lesson IV q Linear ciphers are weak o Since linear equations are easy to solve q Strong cipher must have nonlinearity o Linear components are useful o But cipher cannot be entirely linear q Cryptanalyst try to approximate nonlinear parts with linear equations Classic Crypto 41

One-time Pad q. A provably secure cipher q No other cipher we discuss is provably secure q Why not use one-time pad for everything? o Impractical for most applications o But it does have its uses Classic Crypto 42

One-time Pad Encryption e=000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111 Encryption: Plaintext Key = Ciphertext h e i l h i t l e r Plaintext: 001 000 010 100 001 010 111 100 000 101 Key: 111 101 110 101 111 100 000 101 110 000 Ciphertext: 110 101 100 001 110 111 001 110 101 s Classic Crypto r l h s s t h s r 43

One-time Pad Decryption e=000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111 Decryption: Ciphertext Key = Plaintext s r l h s s t h s r Ciphertext: 110 101 100 001 110 111 001 110 101 Key: 111 101 110 101 111 100 000 101 110 000 Plaintext: 001 000 010 100 001 010 111 100 000 101 h Classic Crypto e i l h i t l e r 44

One-time Pad Double agent claims sender used “key”: s r l h s s t h s r Ciphertext: 110 101 100 001 110 111 001 110 101 “key”: 101 111 000 101 111 100 000 101 110 000 “Plaintext”: 011 010 100 001 010 111 100 000 101 k i l l h i t l e r e=000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111 Classic Crypto 45

One-time Pad Sender is captured and claims the key is: s r l h s s t h s r Ciphertext: 110 101 100 001 110 111 001 110 101 “Key”: 111 101 000 011 101 110 001 011 101 “Plaintext”: 001 000 100 011 000 110 011 000 h e l i k e s i k e e=000 h=001 i=010 k=011 l=100 r=101 s=110 t=111 Classic Crypto 46

One-time Pad Summary q Provably secure, when used correctly o o o q Ciphertext provides no info about plaintext All plaintexts are equally likely Pad must be random, used only once Pad is known only by sender and receiver Pad is same size as message No assurance of message integrity Why not distribute message the same way as the pad? Classic Crypto 47

Real-world One-time Pad q Project VENONA o Soviet spy messages from U. S. in 1940’s o Nuclear espionage, etc. o Thousands of messaged Spy carried one-time pad into U. S. q Spy used pad to encrypt secret messages q Repeats within the “one-time” pads made cryptanalysis possible q Classic Crypto 48

VENONA Decrypt (1944) [C% Ruth] learned that her husband [v] was called up by the army but he was not sent to the front. He is a mechanical engineer and is now working at the ENORMOUS [ENORMOZ] [vi] plant in SANTA FE, New Mexico. [45 groups unrecoverable] detain VOLOK [vii] who is working in a plant on ENORMOUS. He is a FELLOWCOUNTRYMAN [ZEMLYa. K] [viii]. Yesterday he learned that they had dismissed him from his work. His active work in progressive organizations in the past was cause of his dismissal. In the FELLOWCOUNTRYMAN line LIBERAL is in touch with CHESTER [ix]. They meet once a month for the payment of dues. CHESTER is interested in whether we are satisfied with the collaboration and whethere are not any misunderstandings. He does not inquire about specific items of work [KONKRETNAYa RABOTA]. In as much as CHESTER knows about the role of LIBERAL's group we beg consent to ask C. through LIBERAL about leads from among people who are working on ENOURMOUS and in other technical fields. q q q “Ruth” == Ruth Greenglass “Liberal” == Julius Rosenberg “Enormous” == the atomic bomb Classic Crypto 49

Codebook Cipher q Literally, a book filled with “codes” o More precisely, 2 codebooks, 1 for encryption and 1 for decryption q Key is the codebook itself q Security of cipher requires physical security for codebook q Codebooks widely used thru WWII Classic Crypto 50

Codebook Cipher Literally, a book filled with “codewords” q Zimmerman Telegram encrypted via codebook q Februar fest finanzielle folgender Friedenschluss : 13605 13732 13850 13918 17142 17149 : Modern block ciphers are codebooks! q More on this later… q Classic Crypto 51

Zimmerman Telegram One of most famous codebook ciphers ever q Led to US entry in WWI q Ciphertext shown here… q Classic Crypto 52

Zimmerman Telegram Decrypted British had recovered partial codebook q Able to fill in missing parts q Classic Crypto 53

Codebook Cipher q Codebooks are susceptible to statistical analysis o Like simple substitution cipher, but lots of data required to attack a codebook q Historically, codebooks very popular q To extend useful life of a codebook, an additive was usually used Classic Crypto 54

Codebook Additive q Codebook additive is another book filled with “random” number q Sequence of additive numbers added to codeword to yield ciphertext plaintext Classic Crypto lookup in codebook codeword add the additive ciphertext 55

Codebook Additive q Usually, starting position in additive book selected at random by sender q Starting additive position usually sent “in the clear” with the ciphertext o Part of the message indicator (MI) o Modern term: initialization vector (IV) q Why does this extend the useful life of a codebook? Classic Crypto 56

Cryptanalysis: Summary q Exhaustive key search q Divide and conquer q Statistical analysis q Exploit linearity q Or any combination thereof (or anything else you can think of) q All’s fair in love and war… o …and cryptanalysis! Classic Crypto 57