Citing appropriately in academic communities Dr Blair Matthews

What to expect from this session • Discussion paper: teaching citations in EAP • An explanation of the difference between academic practices and EAP practices • Some questions raised

What does it take to write a citation? • A citation demonstrates awareness of what is being discussed, argued about, written and discovered by an academic community. • A complex process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Read a range of complex texts Understand internalise ideas Evaluate ideas in relation to other ideas Synthesise into text Choose an appropriate form to present the argument in the best way

Citation as Academic Practice • Citation is not a technical practice, it’s a social practice • Participation (in academic fields) ‘refers … to a more encompassing process of being active participants in the practices of social communities’ (Wenger 1999: 4) • Citation reflects the nature of knowledge within academic fields

Law • Emphasis on individual cases • Notation system or groups of cases • E. g. OSCOLA • Full reference at the bottom of • Person writing the study is the page (often) irrelevant • The EAT case of Kenny v. 1 Hampshire Constabulary raises a further restriction on the scope of the reasonable adjustment duty.

Sciences • Emphasis on scientific method • Numeric system • E. g. Vancouver • Refers to studies or groups of • Full reference at the end. studies • Emphasis is on these studies (rather than individuals) • Beer contains a number of micronutrients such as ferulic acid and polyphenols, which have the potential for 1 prevention of colonic carcinogenesis.

Social Sciences • Knowledge is constantly being interpreted; re-interpreted • Knowledge is often contested • Emphasis on individuals or groups of individuals • E. g. Bourdieu • The American pragmatists • Author-date system • E. g. APA or Harvard • Can shift emphasis of citation (integral/non-integral citation) • Evaluative • The book uses success stories from the authors’ own lived experiences to make the case for a creative revolution in the business world (Stewart & Simmons, 2010, p. 22).

The relation to EAP • . . . EAP is nothing if it is not a process of socialisation into an academic community • However, the commercial nature of EAP (the political, economic context of EAP) • Reliance on generic academic skills (see Basil Bernstein’s typology of knowledge in higher education, 2000)

Singulars, Regions and Generics (Bernstein, 2000) • Singular – e. g. university departments • Practices are insular, coded, protected within the field • Region – e. g. university writing centres; EAP departments • Outward looking, non-specialist, commercial, market-oriented • Generic – e. g. EAP • Pragmatic, related to the acquisition of skills • Practice of citation may be treated differently depending on whether it belongs to the singular or region

Caplan (2012)

Bailey (2015)

Feak and Swales (2011)

Potential problems in student writing • Focus on form over function (Xxx states that. . . ) • Choice of a particular form without understanding the precise meaning of that form (e. g. shift from integral to non-integral citation; report vs. suggest) • Not teaching students the approach appropriate for their discipline

Questions • Should EAP teachers be responsible for teaching specific academic skills? • How can we help students make better choices with regards to citations? • Do we need to teach citations at all to some students (e. g. for foundation students)?

• Bailey, S. (2015). The Essentials of Academic Writing for International Students. Routledge. • Bernstein, B. B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control, and identity: Theory, research, critique (No. 4). Rowman & Littlefield. • Caplan, N. (2012). Grammar Choices for Graduate and Professional Writers. University of Michigan. • Feak, C. B. and Swales, J. M. (2011). Creating Contexts: Writing Introductions across Genres. University of Michigan. • Wenger, E. , 1999. Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge university press.