Christian Morality Session 2 Natural Law Pete Byrne

Christian Morality Session 2 - Natural Law Pete Byrne CCRS Bexhill

What separates you from an animal?

“To ignore the dictate of reason is equivalent to condemning the will of God. ” St Thomas of Aquinas What does this mean?

Natural Law. Before looking at Natural Law in more detail consider these statements and discuss them. • • Is it natural to be homosexual Is it natural to be violent Is it natural to be prejudice Is it natural to be monogamous Is it natural to commit suicide Is it natural to eat meat Is it natural to use contraception

Natural Law Learning Outcomes • Explain the origins of Aquinas’ Natural Law in Aristotle’s idea of purpose. • Explain Aquinas’ ideas of purpose and perfection; • Explain how reason is used to discover Natural Law; • Explain what is meant by primary and secondary precepts. • Evaluate these views and their strengths and weaknesses.

What is Natural Law? • It is an absolute theory of ethics that is not rooted in duty or externally imposed laws. Aquinas built on the ideas of Aristotle and developed natural law into a moral framework. • Instead it is found in our human nature and our search for genuine happiness and fulfilment. • There is a natural order in our world, determined by some supernatural power that should be followed. • Human beings are naturally inclined towards its moral code. • The moral life is a life lived ‘according to reason’. • By discovering our end telos or purpose, we can work out how to achieve this. • It does not give a fixed law; it is not always straightforward and there is some flexibility in its application.

The Hierarchical Moral Code ETERNAL LAW Eternal Law is the mind of God which humans cannot know. Contained within it are the laws which govern the creation of the universe and control the life cycle of everything in existence. Although humans cannot fully know the Eternal Law, they can occasionally glimpse reflections of it, for example, through scientific knowledge of aspects of the natural world. DIVINE LAW Divine Law is the law of God revealed to people through the Bible, which Christian call the ‘Word of God’. Jesus Christ, as the Son of God, also brought Divine Law with him and the teachings of the Church transmit Divine Law to people. NATURAL LAW Everyone has a natural sense “that good is to be done and evil avoided "which some call human nature. It is what directs our conscience and if applied with reason to a situation will lead to the right outcome. HUMAN LAW These are everyday rules that govern our lives, from the legal system at one end right down to notices saying “Don’t walk on the grass”.

The Origins of Natural Law: The Stoics The Natural Law approach to morality has a long history. Cicero (106 -43 BCE) stated. . . ´True law is right reason in agreement with nature. It is applied universally and is unchanging and everlasting´ The Republic

The Origins of Natural Law: The Stoics • There are universal and unchangeable laws that should be followed. • To live according to our nature is to live according to the will of God. • We possess the divine spark. • Free Will allows us to choose whether or not to follow Natural Law. • Reason enables us to understand decide whether or not to obey these cosmic laws.

Aristotle (384 -322 BCE) • Telos (end/purpose) – The key idea in Aristotle´s natural law is that there is an unchanging order (principle) to the changing physical world. By understanding this order we can learn what is natural for something or someone to do, or become (its purpose or telos). • Supreme good is found when things fulfill their purpose. • Aristotle’s Theory of Causes distinguished between efficient and final causes.

Efficient Cause (The means to an end) These are things we do, to achieve something. For example. . . If we want a seed to grow, we plant it in soil, fertilise it, water it and expose it to sunlight. Final causes (the end in itself) – The ´telos´ This is what should happen if we do the right things. For example. . . We plant seeds, water them etc because this is the way they grow and become plants. This is because there is something within the nature of the seed which responds to these conditions. On the other hand, a seed left un-watered will generally die.

What is the purpose of these objects?

According to Aristotles philosophy something was ‘good’ if it fulfilled its ‘telos’ (purpose) for which it was created for example. . . A good knife is one that cuts well. A good burger is one that is tasty and filling etc.

For Aristotle the ´inner principle´of human nature is REASON. The human ability to reason is the ´driving force´of human development and action. For instance, the ability to reflect on our own behaviour and surroundings and change them in light of our thoughts about them, is essentially what separates us from animals.

Aristotle on Human Purpose • Natural Law is morality that follows the natural purpose of life. • Aristotle thought that the ultimate goal of humans is to achieve Eudaimonia. • Eudaimonia = happiness, living well, thriving and flourishing with others in society. This is what we do aim for. • Eudaimonia is achieved by living a life of reason to discover the laws that lead us there. Ethics is reason put into practice

Thomas Aquinas (1225 -74) The writings of Aristotle had been lost in the West but had been preserved amongst the Islamic scholars of the East. They were re-introduced into Western thought shortly before Aquinas took up a position as a professor at the University of Paris. Aquinas believed natural law was the moral code which human beings were naturally inclined towards. God reveals specific commands but these do not go against natural law but rather further and develop it. This reflected Aquinas´ approach to theology generally by which natural theology (which was based on human reason) did not go against revealed theology (which was based on revelation by God). Even without knowledge of God, reason can discover the laws that lead to human flourishing. Aquinas said that ´the moral life is the life which is lived according to reason. ´

Based on Aristotles idea of the ´good´ being that which fulfils the purpose for which it was created, Aquinas believed it was necessary to establish the purpose for which humans were created by God.

So consider this simple question. What is the purpose of human life? Write your answer on a piece of paper. To be done on your own and with no discussing.

The Purpose of Human Beings • Aquinas believed God created the world (Efficient Cause) with a sense of order and purpose that reflects his will. • Although Eudaimonia (human and societal flourishing) is part of our human nature, we are made in the image of God. • Our human purpose is perfection; to grow in relationship with God and discover his plan and purpose for each of us (Final Cause). • This supreme good can only be fulfilled in the afterlife. • Morality enables us to fulfil our nature. “…some things are so produced by God that, being intelligent, they bear a resemblance to Him and reflect His image: wherefore not only are they directed, but they direct themselves to their appointed end by their own actions. ” Aquinas

How do we know what God intends? Eternal Law Not with blind faith, but by using the God-given power of reason. We need to examine the ‘reflections’ of Natural Moral Law: Divine Law Bible – revealed Natural Law Moral law of God – divinely inspired built into human nature – reason required Human laws Practical rules – can vary according to land, family, accepted codes Each law depends on the authority of the level above, with God being the ultimate source of all authority.

Human Nature and the Synderesis Rule Aquinas believed the most fundamental inclination of humans is to ‘Do good and avoid evil’. This means we are naturally inclined to live in a moral and virtuous way. Following this law will make people happy and content, because they will be close to God their creator. This eternal relationship with God is the telos of all human life Aquinas believed humans to be fundamentally good as he believed we are all created by God. Aquinas did not believe we could knowingly choose evil. Why then do we chose to do evil?

Apparent vs. Real Good Immoral actions or ´sin´ according to Aquinas are not carried out because of evil intent or a corrupted nature. The reason behind immoral action is to confuse ´apparent good´ with the ´real good´. We get things morally wrong in the mistaken belief that they are ´good´when in fact they do not fit the perfect human ideal. Drinking alcohol may make me feel more sociable – apparent good – but the ideal would be to feel self confident and sociable without having to alter my body chemically We need to use our reason and our experience correctly and choose the right thing to do. The ‘right use of reason’ must determine and distinguish ‘apparent goods’ from ‘real goods’.

No-one seeks evil for itself, it is only sought as an apparent good and therefore rests on a mistake. Hitler did not seek to do evil – he sought to do what he thought was good but was mistaken. He strove for the apparent good of ethnic cleansing rather than the ideal (real) good of living harmoniously with others. No-one seeks evil for itself. . . Do you agree? What are the apparent goods below?

‘Interior acts’ versus ‘exterior acts’ Aquinas also distinguished between ´interior acts´ and ´exterior acts´. An act may be good in itself (exterior) but done for a wrong intention (interior) – for instance giving to charity may be good in itself but if it is done in order to attract praise and attention, then it has been done from a bad intention. Therefore our intentions as well as our actions are important when seeking to live a virtuous and moral life and striving to reach the potential for which God has created us for. Each individual has to make his or her own decision and the place of conscience is vital in this.

Check our understanding • What do you mean when you use the word ‘purpose’? • What did Aristotle mean by it? • What did Aquinas understand by the word? • What is the difference in these usages? • Why is it wrong to say ‘Natural Law means doing what comes naturally’? • How does one fulfil one’s purpose?

The Primary Precepts Aquinas sets out the FUNDAMENTAL GOODS to which all human beings, being made in God’s image are inclined. 1. The Preservation of Life 2. Human Procreation 3. The advancement of knowledge and learning 4. Living in a peaceful and harmonious community 5. The worship of God. These are known as the primary precepts. Each of these can be developed into SECONDARY PRECEPTS which are practical human rules. Reason enables us to put the secondary precepts into practice in different circumstances. Creativity and imagination will be needed, not blanket rules, in deciding how we allow individuals to flourish and reach perfection.

The Secondary Precepts PRIMARY PRECEPTS SECONDARY PRECEPTS 1. The Preservation of Life ØDo not commit suicide ØDo not switch off life-support machines 2. Human Procreation Ø Permit IVF and surrogacy ØContraception is wrong 3. The advancement of knowledge and learning ØEducation is free ØMaking schooling compulsory 4. Living in a peaceful and harmonious community ØBuild more homes ØEncourage community activities 5. The worship of God. ØSet one day a week aside for worship ØHold school assemblies

The Secondary Precepts PRIMARY PRECEPTS SECONDARY PRECEPTS 1. The Preservation of Life ØDo not commit suicide ØDo not switch off life-support machines 2. Human Procreation Ø Permit IVF and surrogacy ØContraception is wrong 3. The advancement of knowledge and learning ØEducation is free ØMaking schooling compulsory 4. Living in a peaceful and harmonious community ØBuild more homes ØEncourage community activities 5. The worship of God. ØSet one day a week aside for worship ØHold school assemblies Reason enables us to put the secondary precepts into practice in different circumstances. Creativity and imagination will be needed, not blanket rules, in deciding how we allow individuals to flourish and reach perfection.

Any act that furthers the end for human beings is morally good. Every moral act of man as a rational being has an intrinsic value. What would Aquinas believe about the following: Abortion - Homosexuality - Genetic Engineering

Putting Aquinas´ natural law into action and looking at case studies. How do these actions confuse the ´apparent good´ of sexual gratification with the ´ideal good´ of reproduction?

Natural law recieves the most attention and criticism today when we apply the thinking to the liberal sexual attitudes of today. Based on Aquinas´understanding acts such as homosexuality, use of contraception and masturbation are all immoral actions. The ideal purpose of sex is for reproduction within the confines of marriage. Any sexual act contrary to this is considered ´unnatural´ and therefore immoral. The Catholic Church has established its doctrines on the basis of Aquinas´ natural law and that is why the Catholic Church today maintains a strict adherence to the belief that Homosexulaity, contraception, abortion, masturbation or any other sexual act not aimed at procreation is unnatural, sinful and therefore immoral.

If a person develops a serious illness, that is part of God’s plan for them. Is it therefore wrong for doctors to try and make them well again?

A critical distinction: Is withdrawing treatment the same as…. . Giving drugs that relieve pain but shorten the life of the patient…. . . or is that the same as…. Administering a drug to end the life of a patient

The Doctrine of Double Effect Some times in a moral dilemma you cannot do good without a bad consequence. Can you think of an example? The Doctrine of Double Effect states: • It is always wrong to do a bad act intentionally to bring about good consequences. • But that it is sometimes all right to do a good act despite knowing that it will bring about bad consequences. If the embryo is left to develop, both it and the mother will die. Therefore the embryo is removed to save the mother's life but it has the 'double effect' of killing the embryo • However, these bad consequences must be unintended side effects. In essence, the primary action has an unintended double effect but that is not why you are doing it.

The Doctrine of Double Effect Is it possible to bomb a military command base in the centre of a civilian population and next to a hospital if the deaths of the civilians are not intended but simply foreseen?

Conclusion • As presented by Aquinas, the Natural Law is based on the conviction that God created the world, establishing within it a sense of order and purpose that reflects his Will. • If everything is created for a purpose, human reason, in examining that purpose, should be able to judge how to act in order to fulfil itself and therefore find its own goal and ultimate happiness. • Since Natural Law is based on reason, it is in principle discoverable by anyone, whether religious or not. For the same reason it is universal rather than limited to any one religion or culture.

Eternal Law Making moral judgements Divine Law Natural Law Human laws Bible – revealed – NOT ESSENTIAL ON THE ROUTE TO GOD Moral law of God – divinely inspired - built into human nature – reason required – PRIMARY PRECEPTS – FIXED - ABSOLUTE – DEONTOLOLICAL ESSENTIAL Practical rules – can vary according to land, family, accepted codes – SECONDARY PRECEPTS – REALISTIC - FLEXIBLE - TELEOLOGICAL Each law depends on the authority of the level above, with God being the ultimate source of all authority.

Evaluating Natural Law • Simple clear cut rules that can be followed by everyone. • Difficult to apply basic precepts to complex situations e. g. spending on schools vs. hospitals. • Primary precepts are common to all societies. Suggests a universal truth. • Suggests there is a common fixed human nature that applies to all people, e. g. being heterosexual. (Against cultural relativism) • Focuses on the character of human beings and how we truly flourish. • Secondary precepts allow enough flexibility to accommodate different cultures. Interpreted rigidly (e. g. by the Catholic Church), cannot cope with individual moral problems. • Naturalistic Fallacy: You can’t derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’. If our human nature ‘is’ to procreate doesn’t mean we ‘ought’ to. • Too focused on reason. Human nature can’t be trusted (The Fall). Must rely on the Bible. • • Supports the use of reason, as well as imagination and emotion. So it is open to everyone, religious or not.