China Historical Highlights Michael Abraham Historical Periods 2700

China – Historical Highlights Michael Abraham

Historical Periods 2700 BCE– 1911 CE > Dynastic or “Imperial Era” 1911– 1949 CE > Republican or “Nationalist” Period 1949– 1976 > Communist Period under Mao Zedong 1976–Present > Reform Period

Mythological Beginnings Chinese civilization lacks both a universal creation story, and the concept of a creator god responsible for all life. Chinese mythology draws upon many accounts, dated from the 4 th cent. – 2 nd cent. CE Yin and Yang Themes most often repeated include: • Existence of primeval elements (vapor), and the later separation into yin and yang • Separation of earth from sky and a finite world picture – heaven above; earth below • Earthly life stemming from a semi-divine being Pan Gu, who himself was born from a cosmic egg Pan Gu • Human life being shaped from either the semi-god Nu Wa (female) or along with her consort Fu Xi, (“the first man and woman”) Nu Wa and Fu Xi.

Culture Bearers Chinese folklore credits many “culture bearers”, turned semi-divine. Jade Emperor who presides over heaven and the four poles. Huang Di –Yellow Lord”, first of predynastic rulers, (2697 -2597 BCE) Fu Xi – first man, ox tamer, discover of writing (i. e. multi-functional) Sui- Jen – fire driller Qu Ling – the river god Shen Nung – farmer god

Major Dynasties of Imperial Era For thousands of years, China was governed by ruling families known as dynasties. Dynastic rule ended in 1912. Xia 2100 BCE– 1600 BCE Shang 1600 BCE– 1046 BCE W. Zhou 1046 BCE-771 BCE E. Zhou 771 BCE – 256 BCE Warring States 475– 221 BCE Qin 221 BCE– 206 BCE Han 206 BCE – 220 CE Three Kingdoms 220 -265 CE Sui 581 CE– 618 CE Tang 680 CE – 918 CE Song 960 CE– 1279 CE Yuan (Mongol) 1279 CE– 1368 CE Ming 1368 CE -1644 CE Qing (Manchu) 1644 CE -1912 CE Mandate of Heaven – The right to rule as granted from heaven. A dynasty kept the mandate of heaven so long as they ruled wisely, and in the interests of the people.

Pillars of Chinese Civilization • • Agriculture System of Writing Confucianism The Bureaucratic System (including a strong emperor and ruling house)

Shang 1600 – 1046 BCE The Shang era is noted for: • Origins of writing system • Use of oracle bones • Bronze technology/weaponry • Practice of ancestral worship

Chinese Writing Dates back to the Shang era. (2 nd mill. BCE). Based on pictographs characters representing objects, and ideographs combinations of pictographs used to represent ideas. Question: What challenges might a logographic system like written Chinese pose compared to a phonetic system, in which letters represent sounds?

Strokes and Stroke Order Individual strokes are learned before complete characters Note: both stroke order and direction are important Character - Forever Note: There are two competing systems of writing Chinese. Simplified Version is spoken in Mainland China, while Traditional Version is spoken in Taiwan. (Chineseoutpost. com)

The Zhou Dynasty Western Zhou (1046 -771 BCE) Eastern Zhou (771 – 256 BCE) The Western Zhou period was noted for: • Use of iron for tools and weapons • Concept of the Mandate of Heaven The Eastern Zhou is further split into the Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC– 481 BC), a time when China’s “Hundred Schools of Thought” arose, and the Warring States Period (403 BC – 221 BC), a period of civil war, largely due to the rise of feudal lords and private land ownership. Chinese Crossbow

Ancestral Worship The emphasis on veneration, or respect of one’s ancestors pre-dates the teachings of Confucius in Chinese society. Why might ancestral worship have played such a large role?

Confucianism is a philosophy based upon the ideas of Kong Fu Zi, or “Confucius” (551 -479 BCE). It emphasized the importance of moral training and the setting of examples (li – etiquette) in order to attain a peaceful society in which individuals practice ren (kindness). Five Relationships 1. Ruler-Subject 2. Father-Son 3. Husband-Wife 4. Older – Younger Sibling 5. Friend-Friend Essential Questions Did Confucius perceive man as good or evil by nature? Did Confucius perceive society as egalitarian (equal)? Did Confucius place greater value on individuality or conformity What might be the strengths and weaknesses of a society influenced by the principles of Confucianism? Sedan chair

Debate Over the Nature of Man Menzi, or Mencius (370 – 286 BCE) was a Confucian scholar who argued man was essentially good and capable of being shaped primarily by education and modeling. Menzi may have compiled the Analects, a collection of Confucius’ teachings Xunzi, another Confucian scholar (298– 238 BCE) also saw the need for modeling, ritual and education but contrasted Menzi by arguing man was essentially evil thereby requiring more rigorous application of ritual and study. Han Feizhi was Xunzi’s student. He argued that since man was prone toward the bad, uniform laws and consequences were necessary to govern. This became the basis of the philosophy known as Legalism in China.

Daoism (“Taoism”) began in the 6 th c. BCE. Its mythical founder was Lao Zi Its sacred text was The Dao de Jing, or “Classic of the Way”. Daoism emphasized wu wei, exerting little effort and following the dao, or “way” or road. Daoism also placed emphasis on balancing the forces of yin (feminine) and yang (masculine). The way that can be spoken of Is not the constant way; The name that can be named Is not the constant name The nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth The named was the mother of the myriad creatures

The Dao De Jing (excerpt) Know the Masculine, cleave to the Feminine Be the valley for everyone Being the valley for everyone You are always in virtue without lapse And you return to infancy Know the white, but don’t stray from the Black Be a model for everyone Being the model for everyone You are always in virtue and free from error You return to the limitless Know Glory, but hold humility near Be the valley for everyone When your constancy in virtue is complete You return to the uncarved block The block is cut into implements The sage uses them to fulfill roles Therefore the tailor does not cut

Zhuangzi (369 – 286 BCE) Zhuangzi was another well known Daoist credited with the text The Zhuangzi. He warned against the “classification of things”, and described the fine line between the real and “unreal”. Zhuangzi dreamt that he was a butterfly, enjoying himself, fluttering about … suddenly he awoke, but he did not know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt of being a butterfly, or a butterfly who was dreaming of being Zhuangzi.

Legalism The philosophy of legalism was developed by Han Feizi (280 BCE – 233 BCE), a philosopher who lived during the Warring States Period. Han stressed the idea that man was essentially evil, and that society needed extensive bodies of law in order to attain a civil society, and to protect the governed as well.

The Warring States Period The latter part of the Zhou period was known as The Warring States Period (474 BCE – 221 BCE). Some 70 states competed for the Mandate of Heaven. The most powerful proved to be the Chu, Qi and Qin. The Qin would eventually conquer their rivals and unite China.

Shi Huang Di - The “First Emperor” Ying Zheng took over the Western state of Qin in 247 BC and by 221 BCE led it to victories over the rival states of Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi. King Zheng is credited with unifying China and founding the Qin Dynasty (221 -206 BCE). He later took the title Shi Huang Di, meaning“First Emperor”.

Qin Governance and Uniformity The Qin emperor enacted a number of unifying and centralizing measures such as the standardization of the script, roads and coins. The Qin emperor also ruled in adherence to the principles of Legalism, the philosophy that emphasized the need for codified laws and consequences in governing.

The Wall of 10, 000 Li Starting east near the Bohai Sea, The Great Wall, a World Heritage Site, stretches west to Dunhuang for some 1500 miles. The Qin emperor is credited with uniting separate walls into one. Most of the present wall was constructed during the later Ming period. One of China’s great folk tales is The Story of Meng Jiang Nyu. Recommended Site: UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites

The Terracotta Army The First Emperor sought immortality. He may have achieved it through the construction of his life size terracotta army located in his capital of Xian. Recommended Site: UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites Photos – World Heritage Organization

The Burner of the Books In 213 BCE Shi Huang Di ordered the burning of Confucian and Daoist texts as well as the recorded histories of many of the neighboring states. He also had some 460 scholars buried alive. After the death of the Qin emperor in 206 BCE, the empire shortly fell apart. Qin proverb: You can conquer an empire on horseback, but it is difficult to govern from horseback.

Hero (2002) Hero, directed by Zhang Yimou stars Jet Li as a legendary assassin known only as Nameless, who sets out to eliminate Sky, Snow, and Broken Sword, three would be assassins of Shi Huang Di, the First Emperor. The reward for Nameless’ efforts is a direct audience with the emperor himself. The film was inspired by the legendary assassination attempt on Shi Huang Di, (aka - King Zheng) by the assassin Jing Ke in 227 BCE.

The Great Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) The Han period is regarded as one of the greatest in China’s history. It saw Confucianism adopted as a governing philosophy, and the establishment of a civil service exam for officials based upon learning of the Five Classics and the teachings of Confucius. At this time, references to China as zhong guo, or “central country” appear. In time, Chinese would refer to themselves as Sons of Han, or simply Han. It was also at this time that China engaged in more regular contact with other civilizations. The 6 th Han Emperor - Wu Di 141 - 87 BC, was benevolent at home, yet waged war against the Xiongnu abroad. During his reign, China’s borders stretched to nearly the extent of today’s borders.

Sima Qian (145 -85 BCE) – “The Court Historian” Sima Qian was a Han court historian who wrote the “The Historical Records”, or Shi ji. In doing so he relied upon documents back to the Shang era as well as contemporary documents in order to compile a history of China. Shiji – Commentary on the Xiongnu Portrait Sima Qian

The Silk Routes Starting in the Han Period, the silk routes linked China with central Asia, India, Persia and Europe. China exported silk, jade, bronze goods, lacquered products and eventually porcelain for glassware, gemstones, and spices. Most coveted by China were the “heavenly horses” from Central Asia. Question: What religion came to China from India via the Silk Routes?

A Mosaic of Peoples Trade along the Silk Routes brought China in contact with a broad range of ethno-linguistic groups. Included were Soghdians, Parthians, Indians, Gandharans, Persians and many others.

Early Silk Road Cities Jiaohe and Gaochang were military outposts built by the Han government some 29 miles southeast of the Silk Road city Turfan at the foot of the Flaming Mountains. Jiaohe Ruins (Abraham) Gaochang girls (Abraham)

The Steppe The peoples of the grasslands to the north and west preoccupied China’s rulers from early on. Its relations with tribes such as the Xiongnu ranged from trade and marriage diplomacy to military conflict. In 139 BCE, a Chinese military envoy named Zhang Qian journeyed to the Central Asian steppe to recruit enemies of the Xiong-nu as allies of China. Bronze Heavenly Horse from 2 nd c. BC Excavated from a tomb in Gansu Province. Gansu Provincial Museum. Zhang Qian – Han general sent by Emperor Wudi to recruit allies to fight the Xiongnu. Dunhuang Academy.

Spread of Buddhism Starting in the 1 st cent. CE, Buddhist pilgrims from India journeyed along the Silk Routes to spread the dharma, or teachings of the Buddha. Buddhism appealed to the Chinese for its offer of universal salvation, something not addressed in Confucianism or Daoism. The type of Buddhism to take root in China (and Korea and Japan) was Mahayana Buddhism. It allowed for the presence of many buddhas and bodhisatvas. It placed less emphasis on the study of scripture and the monastic life. The earlier form of Buddhism was known as Theravada Buddhism. It stressed traditional teachings and the life of the historical Buddha. It became widespread popular in Southeast Asia. Bamiyan Buddha’s Guanyin (Sui period)

Buddhism was founded in India in the 6 th c. BCE. by a prince, Siddhartha Gautama. The Buddha’s teachings (dharma) emphasized moderation, pursuit of enlightenment and release (nirvana) from reincarnation through accruement of good karma. Also important were three jewels: the Buddha, dharma and sangha (community), and the Four Noble Truths: 1). Life is suffering 2). Cause of suffering is desire 3). To eliminate suffering, One must eliminate desire 4). To eliminate desire, one must follow the Eightfold Path Buddha overcoming Mara, India 12 th c. CE, Metropolitan Museum of Art 5 th Buddha teaching law. c. CE India (Image Saint Barbara City College)

Journey to the West (Xi You Ji) Journey to the West, (a. k. a. “The Monkey King”) was written in the 16 th c. CE by Wu Cheng En and is regarded as one of the four Ming classics. The story centers around a 7 th century Chinese monk named Xuanzang (Hsuan. Tsang) who journeys to India to acquire sacred Buddhist texts. However, the monk’s story is overshadowed by the exploits of a “monkey king”, who has undergone special Daoist training, yet abused his skills. In order to repent, the Lord Buddha forces “Monkey” to serve as a companion to the monk Xuanzang and oversee his safe journey to and from India. One good translation of the story is Arthur Waley’s Monkey. www. China-On-Site. com

Mogao Caves of Dunhuang, in present day Gansu, was home to the Mogao Caves, or “Caves of A Thousand Buddhas”. From the 4 th c. CE onward, Buddhist pilgrims created grottoes out of limestone. In these caves, they translated sutras, and produced murals, sculptures and stupas portaying events in Buddhist folklore as well as Chinese life. Diamond Sutra, 868 CE, Dunhuang, seven strips woodblock print. (British Museum) Dunhuang – Western China

“Foreign Devils on the Silk Road” termed by Peter Hopkirk Around the turn of the 20 th century, a continuum of explorers from Europe, Russia and Japan made their way to Dunhuang. With the complicity of a Daoist abbot who had been charged with safeguarding the treasures, the explorers procured countless treasures. Today, they rest in museums and private collections around the world. Far left: Aurel Stein and expeditionary team. Near left: Paul Pelliot w/manuscripts. Above: Abbot Wang Yuanlu. Photos courtesy of BBC News.

Guan Yin (Kuan-Yin) Starting in the Tang period, the bodhisattva Guan Yin, “goddess of mercy” rose to great popularity among Buddhist figures in East Asia. Buddhism itself took a prominent position alongside Confucianism and Daoism in Chinese society. For common visual portrayals see Buddhist Art by Charles F. Chicarelli) Bodhisattva Guanyin (Kuan-yin), 11 th/12 th cent. Wood with paint , 95 inches high (241. 3 cm) Northern Song (960 -1127 AD) or Liao (907 -1125 AD) Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City

Amitabha and the Pure Land Sect In the 5 th c. CE, a Buddhist sect known as Sukahavati, or "Pure Land” developed. It revered Amitabha the “Buddha of Infinite Light”. Pure Land emphasized the use of mantras and visualization of Amitabha seated in his Western Paradise, where devotion would be rewarded with rebirth in paradise. Mogao Caves, Dunhuang 705 – 780 CE, Courtesy of Dunhuang Academy

The “Three Kingdoms” (220– 265 CE) The Three Kingdoms, that rose to brief prominence as the Han Dynasty declined, included the northern kingdom of Wei and the southwest kingdom of Shu Han and the southeast kingdom of Wu. Ultimately, the latter two kingdoms allied to defeat the Wei, though all three dissolved by the late 3 rd century. Battles and intrigues between these states constitute the plot of China’s greatest historical romance, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi). Battle scene illustration from Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Tang China (618 – 906 CE) The Tang are regarded as one of the greatest dynasties of the imperial period. The jinshi, or civil service exam was formally instituted and the code of law expanded to civil affairs. Meanwhile, China’s borders were expanded, while trade along the Silk Routes grew. Chang’an became the most cosmopolitan city in the world. Nomadic Horsmen, National Palace Museum Empress Wu (Map – Ebrey) Emperor Taizong Ming portrait of Jian Shunfu. Two cranes indicate civil service exam graduate of the first rank. Nat. Palace Museum, Taiwan.

Chang’an (Xian) Almost one million people resided in the city including Turks, Mongols and Tibetans. In addition to Buddhism, pilgrims practicing Manichaean and Zoroastrian dualism, Nestorian Christianity and Islam arrived. Wild Goose Pagoda Great Mosque Xian Tang painting - Yan Liben portrays Taizhong receiving a Tibetan Tang Painter Han-Kan prince who is asking for the hand of a Tang princess.

Calligraphy Following the invention of paper, Calligraphy became one of the Three Perfects – calligraphy, poetry and painting. Possession of the Four Treasures – ink, ink stone, brush and paper was the first step in becoming a shidafu, or scholar-gentleman. Major styles of calligraphy : Regular Script – Patricia Ebrey Visual Sourcebook Formal (Regular) Running Cursive Seal Official Recommended: Asia for Educator’s website and Patricia Ebrey’s Visual Sourcebook on Chinese civilization’s sections on calligraphy. Above: Wang Xizhi’s Record of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, composed in 353 CE. Source: Ebrey Visual Sourcebook

Tang Poetry Prior to the Tang period, the main poetic device was known as yueh-fu, or “song bureau”. This style involved the recording of traditional odes or ballads that were originally sung, and meant to convey a story. (Examples: The Ballad of Hua Mulan, The Story of Meng Jiang Nyu). These poems were often long, and not necessarily aware of rhythm or meter. http: //history. cultural-china. com/en/60 History 523. html During the Tang period, a new style of poetry called jinti shi emerged. This “modern form” of poetry emphasized: • A four or eight line structure to poems, preferably eight lines • 5 -7 written characters per line. • Since each character represented a single word, and Chinese words are monosyllabic, the poems were often rhythmical. Among the most famous Tang poets who at times exemplified the jinti shi style were Wang Wei, Li Bai and Du Fu.

Wang Wei – master calligrapher, painter, musician, devout Buddhist and jinshi graduate, was also among the greatest of the jinti shi poets. “News of Home” by Wang Wei (ca. 699– 761) Coming from my village, You must have news of home. The day you left, that winter plum tree outside my window — Was it blooming yet? (Translated by Steven Ratiner, 2005. Published in The Enduring Legacy of Ancient China. )

Li Bo (701 -762) Li Bo (Li Bai, Li Po) is regarded by many as the greatest poet in China’s history. Li’s poems displayed strong Daoist influences. They could be simple, playful or even evoke a sense of fantasy Li was also known for his fondness of rice wine, a trait not uncommon among Daoists of the time.

Still Night Thoughts by Li Bai Moonlight in front of my bed, I took it for frost on the ground, I lift my eyes to watch the mountain moon, Lower them and dream of home Drinking Alone Under the Moon by Li Bai Here among the flowers, a single jug of wine, No close friends here, I pour alone, And lifting cup to bright moon, ask it to join me, Then face my shadow, and we become three

Drinking Alone With the Moon by Li Bai From a pot of wine among the flowers I drank alone. There was no one with me -Till raising my cup, I ask the bright moon To bring me my shadow and make us three. Alas, the moon was unable to drink And my shadow tagged me vacantly; But still for a while I had these friends To cheer me through the end of spring. . I sang. The moon encouraged me I danced. My shadow tumbled after. As long as I knew, we were born companions. And then I was drunk, and we lost one another. . . Shall goodwill ever be secure? I watch the long road of the River of Stars.

Du Fu (712 – 770) Du Fu was ranked second only to Li Bai as a poet. Though a friend of Li Bo’s, Du’s poetry reflects strong Confucian influences.

“Traveling Northward” by Du Fu Screech owls moan in the yellowing Mulberry trees. Field mice scurry, preparing their holes for winter. Midnight, we cross an old battlefield. The moonlight shines cold on white bones Source: Rexroth, Kenneth; translator. One Hundred Poems from the Chinese. Copyright © 1971 by Kenneth Rexroth. Reprinted by permission of New Directions Publishing Corp.

Song China (960 – 1279 CE) The Song reunited China, but attacks and infiltration from the steppe prompted the move of the capital from Kaifeng in the north to Hangzhou in the south. The Northern Song period (960 -1127 CE) saw many technological advances - gunpowder, moveable printing press. Note Kaifeng’s location on mouth of Grand Canal. During the Southern Song period (1127 – 1279 CE), Confucianism enjoyed a revival. China’s population hit 100 million by the early 12 th century. Emperor Taizu (National Palace Museum, Taipei)

The Shidafu The Song period is known for the expansion of the Shidafu, scholar – gentlemen, or literati class. In part, this was due to the reinstitution of the examination system. Wen Chang, God of Literature, Ming Period, Ontario Museum Old Tree, Bamboo and Rock Wu Zhen, Song Period, National Palace Museum Emperor Huizong (1082 -1135 playing qin, Palace Museum, Beijing

Landscape Paintings Inspired by the teachings of Daoism, landscape painting reached new heights during the Song Dynasty. Working in monochrome, painters used shades to portray landscapes. Mountains (shan) took on special meaning. At Right: Fan Kuan’s Travelers Amid Mountains and Streams. Ink on silk from early 11 th century. Fan Kuan was a court painter. (Ebrey: Visual Sourcebook, National Palace Museum, Taipei. )

The Chinese Calendar Legend has it that the Jade Emperor created the Chinese Lunar calendar in 2637 BCE. By 2010 CE, 4707 lunar years had passed. At right are the 12 animals that represent each year of the zodiac in their order of finish in a legendary river crossing hosted by the Jade Emperor. Rat (2008) Ox (2009) Tiger (2010) Rabbit (2011) Dragon (2012) Snake (2013) Horse (2014) Sheep (2015) Monkey (2016) Rooster (2017) Dog (2018) Pig (2019)

The Chinese New Year – Chun Jie Chinese New Year, or Spring Festival, begins on the eve of the second new moon after the winter solstice. The 15 day period is marked by: • setting off firecrackers to ward off the legendary Nian monster • ritual cleaning • appeasing of Kitchen God – Zao Shen (Tsao Chun) • money in red envelopes “lao see” to children • A popular food is sweet dumplings known as yuanxiao. • New Year ends on the 15 th day of the month with the Lantern Festival

Honoring the Dead Burial traditions vary throughout China. Great effort is made to appease deceased souls. Other practices: • a large procession • wearing of white • a specified mourning period • offerings made to the deceased • a large family meal. Clear Brightness Festival - Qing Ming Jie or “grave sweeping festival”, occurs on the 106 th day after the winter solstice. Families visit gravesites and honor deceased relatives. Less widely practiced is the Ghost Festival which occurs on the 15 th day of the seventh month. On this day, the connection between the underworld and the living is acknowledged. The roots of this tradition date back to Daoist and Buddhist religious beliefs.

The Dragon Boat Festival Duanwu jíe Observed on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Commemorates the Warring States poet Qu Yuan (c. 340 -278 B. C. ). After the defeat of his homeland of Chu, and the failure of the emperor to heed his advice, Qu Yuan threw himself into the Miluo River in present day Hunan Province. The tradition of dragon boat races were originally intended to commemorate the efforts to rescue the poet. In some southern locales, the tradition is said to ward off evils, and sacrifices are made. People frequently eat zongzi, or rice balls.

Mid Autumn Festival Zhong Qiu Jie The Mid Autumn Fest is celebrated on the 15 th day of the 8 th lunar month on the eve of the full moon. The full moon is a symbol of peace and prosperity. Its roundness symbolizes wholeness and unity. Traditions associated: • Reunion of family members. • Thanks for summer harvests • Preparation of moon cakes. • Retelling of story of Lady Chang, the “moon goddess” and Yi the Archer. • Eight is also a popular number in Chinese culture, symbolizing wealth and prosperity. So people believe this day is very favorable. Moon cakes Hou Yi the archer Lady Chang

Celebrating Births and Choosing a Name Clan name precedes given name in China Belief that names should be unique. However, sometimes numbers were used to indicate the order of a child among siblings. By tradition, the birth of a boy “big happiness” or the birth of a girl “small happiness” were very special occasions.

Weddings Traditionally arranged by professional matchmakers Brides usually wore red and carried in sedan chairs from home to wedding site Brides usually moved in with husband’s family Weddings were simplified greatly after the communist takeover of China in 1949.