Children and Poverty Mc Loyd 1998 Childhood poverty

Children and Poverty Mc. Loyd (1998) • Childhood poverty is a major problem in the US – Over 22% of children in the US live in poverty as compared to 9% in Canada (1992) – Individuals that are poor and live in a poor community are even more disadvantaged because of less jobs, good-quality education, and social supports. • Risk of poverty is higher in single-mother families – Low wages for women, poor economic conditions, low education of single mothers, lack of child support from fathers.

Effects of Poverty on Children's Cognitive Dev. • Many studies show significant effects of poverty on children’s cognitive functioning (IQ scores) and verbal skills – Remain significant after controlling for maternal education, family structure, ethnicity (Duncan, 1994) – Poverty was a better predictor of IQ than maternal education – Poverty at age 3 predicted IQ at age 5, even when IQ at 3 was controlled for • Relation between income and IQ is nonlinear – Positive effects of income on cognition are largest for those near poverty line (compared to higher-class) • Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty

Mediating Variables • Physical health of child – Physical health problems combined with less resources to remediate these complications hinder cognitive dev. – Prematurity (low birth weight) is associated with many neurological and cognitive problems – Prematurity is more common in poorer individuals because of inadequate nutrition and prenatal care – Higher rates of prenatal exposure to substances among poorer infants, which affects cognitive development – Lead poisoning associated with cognitive deficits, and poor children have higher levels of lead in blood due to older housing and exposure to environmental pollution • Home-Based cognitive stimulation – Poverty and low maternal education are associated with less cognitive stimulation in home – Cognitive stimulation in home is linked to child’s IQ

Effects of Poverty on Academic Achievement • Poor children do worse on many measures of academic achievement as compared to non poor – Achievement tests, grade retention, course failures, placement in special education, high school graduation • Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty • Early poverty (during first 5 years) is worst • Neighbourhoods with more affluent families are associated with better academic achievement – Seasonal effects: neighbourhoods have more positive effects during summer months, but these gains are stronger for those from higher-SES neighbourhoods

Mediating Variables • Parental and home factors that affect achievement – Verbal interactions with mothers, parental expectations, positive relationships with parents, discipline – Emotional support and cognitive stimulation in home – Literacy resources in home, discussing school, parental education – In home resources have greatest effects during summer, which are strongest for high SES children • Teacher and school characteristics – Teacher attitudes, school values, classroom climate – Teachers perceive poorer children less positively: less positive attention, fewer learning opportunities, and less reinforcement – Schools that stratify classes have more achievement gaps

Mediating Variables • Physical health status – Poverty affects school achievement partly because of poorer physical health • Protective Processes – Parenting: strict, directive, defined rules and supervision, warmth – Preschool education programs increase school readiness, but effects may wash out with time

Effects of Poverty on Socioemotional Functioning • Higher rates of emotional and behavioral problems among poor children and adolescents – Externalizing problems (aggression, acting out) more common than internalizing (anxiety, depression) • Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty Mediators: Parental dysphoria, harsh inconsistent punishment – Parent’s emotional responses & child-rearing behaviors • Discrete and chronic stressors: more negative life events among poor children – Parental conflict, violence, poor housing, homelessness Protective factors: positive parenting and adult role models, preschool intervention programs

Poverty, Civic Communities, and Supervised Sports • Supervised sports helps develop social skills, self esteem, and reduce school drop out • In 1994, 1/3 of children almost never participated in supervised sports • >60% of children from very poor homes almost never participated in supervised sports vs 27% of those from well-off homes Two factors: poverty and community variables • Civic Communities: safe to play during the day, adults to look up to and supervise • 72% of children in civic communities participate in supervised sport vs 58% in non civic comm. • Universal and targeted programs for at-risk

Coping with Child Hunger • Poverty is related to poor health, nutrition, development, and school readiness • Hunger is a universal symbol of deprivation • Coping strategies: food bank and relatives • Single mothers more likely to use food bank (less social support) • 34% of mothers say they skip meals, parents 7 times more likely to go hungry than children • At-Risk: single parent families, off-reserve Aboriginal, low income • >50% of mothers have a chronic health condition • Many still had education, indicating that education alone in not enough