CHEMICAL BONDING A guide for GCSE students 2010

CHEMICAL BONDING A guide for GCSE students 2010 KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING SPECIFICATIONS

CHEMICAL BONDING INTRODUCTION This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students understand selected GCSE Chemistry topics. It is based on the requirements of the AQA specification but is suitable for other examination boards. Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes and it can also prove useful for classroom teaching with an interactive white board. Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A 2 Chemistry topics, are available from the KNOCKHARDY WEBSITE at. . . www. knockhardy. org. uk All diagrams and animations in this Powerpoint are original and created by Jonathan Hopton. Permission must be obtained for their use in any commercial work.

CHEMICAL BONDING OVERVIEW The following slides illustrate how the three main chemical bonds are formed. The physical properties of elements and compounds are influenced by the type of bonding. To understand how structure and bonding affects the physical properties of elements and compounds, view the powerpoint ‘STRUCTURE & BONDING’ available from the KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE GCSE WEBSITE at. . . www. knockhardy. org. uk/gcse. htm

WHAT IS BONDING? Very few substances consist of single atoms. The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms

WHAT IS BONDING? Very few substances consist of single atoms. The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O 2, N 2), giant molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic structures.

WHAT IS BONDING? Very few substances consist of single atoms. The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O 2, N 2), giant molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic structures. COMPOUNDS are ‘substances in which two or more different elements are chemically combined’.

WHAT IS BONDING? Very few substances consist of single atoms. The NOBLE GASES (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) occur as single atoms All other elements exist as simple molecules (eg O 2, N 2), giant molecular structures (diamond and graphite) or giant metallic structures. COMPOUNDS are ‘substances in which two or more different elements are chemically combined’. Elements can be combined using… or IONIC COVALENT METALLIC bonds The type of bonding depends on the outer shell electronic configurations of the atoms being bonded.

NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS Group 0 NOBLE GASES ARE VERY UNREACTIVE THEIR OUTER ENERGY LEVELS ARE ‘FULL’ H He Li Be B C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca 2+ HELIUM 2 10+ NEON 2, 8 18+ ARGON 2, 8, 8 O F Ne S Cl Ar

NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS Group 0 NOBLE GASES ARE VERY UNREACTIVE THEIR OUTER ENERGY LEVELS ARE ‘FULL’ ATOMS WITHOUT A ‘FULL’ OUTER SHELL TRY TO GET ONE H He Li Be B C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca THEY CAN DO THIS IN SEVERAL WAYS 2+ HELIUM 2 10+ NEON 2, 8 18+ ARGON 2, 8, 8 O F Ne S Cl Ar

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS Li Na K Be Mg Ca Al 2, 1 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 2 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS Li Na K Be Mg Ca Al 2, 1 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 2 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS O S F Cl 2, 6 2, 8, 6 2, 7 2, 8, 7

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT Na K Mg Ca Al 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 O S F Cl 2, 6 2, 8, 6 2, 7 2, 8, 7

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION Na K Mg Ca Al 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 O S F Cl 2, 6 2, 8, 6 2, 7 2, 8, 7

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS (CATIONS)

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS THOSE ON THE RIGHT NOW HAVE MORE ELECTRONS NEGATIVE IONS (ANIONS)

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 1 ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF THE ATOMS ON THE LEFT TRANSFER THEIR OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS TO THE OUTER SHELL OF THE ATOMS ON THE RIGHT THEY CAN BOTH ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION CHARGED SPECIES CALLED IONS ARE FORMED THOSE ON THE LEFT NOW HAVE FEWER ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS THOSE ON THE RIGHT NOW HAVE MORE ELECTRONS NEGATIVE IONS THE IONS ATTRACT EACH OTHER TO FORM AN IONIC BOND

IONIC BONDING

SODIUM CHLORIDE Na Cl SODIUM ATOM 2, 8, 1 CHLORINE ATOM 2, 8, 7 PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

SODIUM CHLORIDE Na+ Cl SODIUM ION 2, 8 CHLORIDE ION 2, 8, 8 both species now have ‘full’ outer shells; ie they have the electronic configuration of a noble gas

SODIUM CHLORIDE Na+ Cl SODIUM ION 2, 8 CHLORIDE ION 2, 8, 8 Na Na+ 2, 8, 1 2, 8 + e¯ ELECTRON TRANSFERRED Cl 2, 8, 7 + e¯ Cl¯ 2, 8, 8

CALCIUM CHLORIDE Cl Ca CHLORINE ATOMS 2, 8, 7 Cl CALCIUM ATOM 2, 8, 8, 2 PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

CALCIUM CHLORIDE Cl 2+ Ca CHLORIDE IONS 2, 8, 8 Cl CALCIUM ION 2, 8, 8 PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

CALCIUM CHLORIDE CALCIUM ION 2, 8, 8 Cl 2+ Ca Ca Ca 2+ 2, 8, 8, 2 2, 8, 8 CHLORIDE IONS 2, 8, 8 + 2 e¯ 2 ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED 2 Cl 2, 8, 7 + 2 e¯ 2 Cl¯ 2, 8 Cl

MAGNESIUM OXIDE Mg O MAGNESIUM ATOM 2, 8, 2 OXYGEN ATOM 2, 6 PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

MAGNESIUM OXIDE Mg 2+ O 2 - MAGNESIUM ION 2, 8 OXIDE ION 2, 8 PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

MAGNESIUM OXIDE Mg 2+ O 2 - MAGNESIUM ION 2, 8 OXIDE ION 2, 8 Mg Mg 2+ 2, 8, 2 + 2 e¯ 2, 8 2 ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED O 2, 6 + 2 e¯ O 22, 8

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2 H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2 TYPICAL COMBINATIONS O 2 N 2 Cl 2 Compounds H 2 O NH 3 Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P Elements H 2 H CH 4 K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2 TYPICAL COMBINATIONS O 2 N 2 Cl 2 Compounds H 2 O NH 3 Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P Elements H 2 H CH 4 K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THEY MUST…

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2 TYPICAL COMBINATIONS O 2 N 2 Cl 2 Compounds H 2 O NH 3 Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P Elements H 2 H CH 4 K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THEY MUST SHARE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 2 TYPICAL COMBINATIONS O 2 N 2 Cl 2 Compounds H 2 O NH 3 Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P Elements H 2 H CH 4 K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS SHORT OF A NOBLE GAS IF BOTH ELEMENTS COMBINING TOGETHER NEED TO GAIN ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THEY MUST SHARE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS A SHARED PAIR OF ELECTRONS IS KNOWN AS A COVALENT BOND

COVALENT BONDING

COVALENT BONDING A covalent bond consists of… a shared pair of electrons with one electron being supplied by each atom either side of the bond. The atoms are held together because both their nuclei (which have an overall positive charge) are attracted to the same shared pair of negatively charged electrons. COVALENT BONDS ARE STRONG + + shared pair of electrons Nucleus (positively charged)

HYDROGEN H H H both atoms need one electron to complete their outer shell H H atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond H H 2

HYDROGEN H H H both atoms need one electron to complete their outer shell H H atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond H Covalent bonds are represented by a line H 2

HYDROGEN H H Hydrogen atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell atoms Another share hydrogen a pair of electrons atom to also form needs a single one covalent electron bond to complete its outer shell A hydrogen MOLECULE is formed WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE H H PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

CHLORINE Cl Cl Cl both atoms need one electron to complete their outer shell Cl atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond A CHLORINE MOLECULE IS FORMED Cl Cl Cl 2

CHLORINE Cl Chlorine atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell Cl atoms share a pair of Another chlorine electrons to form a one atom also needs single covalent electron to bond complete its outer shell WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE Cl Cl PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE Cl Cl H atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell atom also needs one electron to complete its outer shell H atoms share a pair of electrons to form a single covalent bond A HYDROGEN CHLORIDE MOLECULE IS FORMED H Cl HCl

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE Cl atoms Chlorine share aatom pair of electrons needs one toelectron form a single to complete covalent bond its outer shell H Hydrogen atom also needs one electron to complete its outer shell WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE H Cl PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

METHANE H H C H atom needs four electrons to complete its outer shell H each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell H H H Carbon shares all 4 of its electrons to form 4 single covalent bonds CH 4

METHANE WAYS TO REPRESENT H THE MOLECULE Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to complete its outer shell H H H C H A Carbon carbonshares atom needs all 4 of 4 its electrons to complete to form 4 single itscovalent outer shell bonds H PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

AMMONIA H H N H atom needs three electrons to complete its outer shell H N H H each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell Nitrogen can only share 3 of its 5 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8 A LONE PAIR REMAINS H N H H NH 3

AMMONIA WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE H Each hydrogen atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell H N H H Nitrogen can share 3 of its atomonly needs 3 electrons 5 to electrons otherwise will complete its outeritshell exceed the maximum of 8 A LONE PAIR REMAINS PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

WATER H O H atom needs two electrons to complete its outer shell each atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell H Oxygen can only share 2 of its 6 electrons otherwise it will exceed the maximum of 8 TWO LONE PAIRS REMAIN H O H H 2 O

WATER WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE Each hydrogen H atom needs one electron to complete its outer shell H H O O H H Oxygen atom can only needs share 2 electrons 2 of its 6 to electrons complete otherwise its outer it shell will exceed the maximum of 8 2 LONE PAIRS REMAIN PRESS THE SPACE BAR TO START / ADVANCE AN ANIMATION

OXYGEN O O O each oxygen atom needs two electrons to complete its outer shell Double covalent bonds are represented by TWO lines O each oxygen shares 2 of its electrons to form a DOUBLE COVALENT BOND O O O 2

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION* ARE METALS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION* ARE METALS • H He Li Be B C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca The central section of the periodic table contains the transition metals TRANSITION METALS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION ARE METALS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION ARE METALS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION ARE METALS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P K Ca O F Ne S Cl Ar ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION ELECTRONS LEAVE TO FORM A MOBILE ‘CLOUD’ OF ELECTRONS

Ways to get a noble gas electronic configuration - 3 ELEMENTS IN GROUPS I, II III and THE CENTRAL SECTION ARE METALS H Li Be B He C N Na Mg Al Si P O F Ne S Cl Ar K Ca ATOMS OF THESE ELEMENTS HAVE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS JUST OVER THAT OF A NOBLE GAS ELEMENTS ON THE LEFT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE NEED TO ‘GET RID OF’ ELECTRONS TO ACHIEVE A NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION ELECTRONS LEAVE TO FORM A MOBILE ‘CLOUD’ OF ELECTRONS THIS IS KNOWN AS. . . METALLIC BONDING

METALLIC BONDING

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Atoms arrange themselves in a regular lattice

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Atoms arrange themselves in a regular lattice The outer shell electrons of each atom leave to join a mobile ‘cloud’ or ‘sea’ of electrons which can roam throughout the metal. The electron cloud holds positive ions together.

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Na Na Na Na SODIUM ATOMS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8, 1

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Na Na Na Na SODIUM ATOMS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8, 1 THE OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Na Na Na Na SODIUM ATOMS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8, 1 THE OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED POSITIVE SODIUM IONS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8

METALLIC BONDING METALS CONSIST OF GIANT STRUCTURES METAL ATOMS NEED TO GET RID OF ELECTRONS TO GET TO THE NEAREST NOBLE GAS ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION THE ELECTRONS RELEASED HOLD THE PARTICLES TOGETHER Na Na Na Na SODIUM ATOMS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8, 1 THE OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED POSITIVE SODIUM IONS WITH ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 2, 8 THE ELECTRON CLOUD CONTAINS THE RELEASED OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS

TO LEARN HOW THE TYPE OF BONDING AFFECTS THE STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS, VIEW THE ASSOCIATED POWERPOINT PRESENTATION… STRUCTURE & BONDING WHICH CAN BE DOWNLOADED FROM THE KNOCKHARDY GCSE WEBSITE AT… www. knockhardy. org/gcse. htm