Chapter Three Culture and Culture Learning Process c

Chapter Three Culture and Culture Learning Process (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Defining Culture Ø Ø Ø Culture is socially constructed Culture is shared by its members Culture is both objective and subjective Culture may be defined by geography, ethnicity, language, religion, history, or other important social characteristics Culture is socially transmitted (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Culture in Everyday Use Ø Terms commonly used to describe social groups that share important cultural elements are: Ø Subculture Ø Microculture Ø Ethnic group Ø Minority group Ø People of color (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØSubculture Subcultures share characteristics that distinguish them from the larger society in which they are embedded: these characteristics may be a set of ideas and practices or some demographic similarity Ø Some examples of subcultures are: Ø Corporate culture Ø Adolescent culture Ø Drug culture Ø Culture of poverty Ø Academic culture (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØMicrocultures also share distinguishing characteristics, but tend to be more closely linked to the larger society, often serving in mediating roles Ø Some examples of microcultures are: Ø The family Ø The workplace Ø The classroom Ø The school (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØEthnic Group Members of ethnic groups share a common heritage, a common history, and often a common language; loyalty to one’s ethnic identity can be very powerful Ø Some examples of ethnic groups are: Ø Irish American Ø Native American Ø Lebanese American Ø African American (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØMinority Group Members of minority groups occupy a subordinate position in a society; they may be separated from the dominant society by disapproval and discrimination Ø Some examples of minority groups in the United States are: Ø Racial minorities Ø Women Ø People with disabilities Ø Language minorities (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØPeople of Color This term refers to members of non-white minority groups; it is often preferred to the term minority group, but does not clearly identify specific loyalties Ø For example, native Spanish-speakers may identify themselves as Hispanic people of color, but their cultural identity may be Puerto Rican, Mexican, or Salvadoran (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Culture Solves Common Human Problems Means of communication—language Ø Determination of power—status Ø Regulation of reproduction—family Ø Systems of rules—government Relationship to nature—magic, myth, religion, science Ø Conception of time—temporality Ø Significant lessons—history Ø Cultural representations—music, story, dance, art Ø Ø (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

The Contributions of Cross. Cultural Psychology Ø Ø While sociology and anthropology study groups, and psychology studies individuals, cross-cultural psychology studies the interactions that occur when individuals from different groups meet Cross-cultural psychologists may approach this problem from one or both of two perspectives: (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Culture Is Both Objective and Subjective Ø Objective culture Ø Ø Ø Physical artifacts Language Clothing Food Decorative objects Ø Subjective culture Ø Ø Ø Attitudes Values Norms of behavior Social roles Meaning of objective cultural elements (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Two Ways to Understand Culture-Specific Approaches Ø Ø Help to understand a particular cultural group, for example, Native Americans Does not account for in-group differences Culture-General Approaches Ø Ø Help to understand how culture “works” in people’s lives; a universal perspective Suggests questions to ask of any culture (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

The Culture-Learning Process Sources of Cultural Knowledge and Identity Individuals in complex societies like the United States tend to identify themselves as belonging to various cultural and social groups, depending on their personal biographies Ø There are twelve major sources of cultural identity that influence teaching and learning Ø (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Cultural Knowledge Is Transmitted by People and Experiences Ø Ø We gain the knowledge that contributes to our cultural identities through interaction with various socializing agents These agents mediate our cultural knowledge in particular ways (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

How We Learn Culture: Socialization Three stages of socialization Ø Ø Ø Primary socialization—of infants and young children by the family and early caregivers Secondary socialization—in childhood and adolescence, by the school, the religious affiliation, the peer group, the neighborhood, and the media Adult socialization—the workplace, travel, and assuming new roles in life (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Some Results of Socialization Because the process of socialization is intended to cause individuals to internalize knowledge, attitudes, values, and beliefs, it has several results which should not be surprising: (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØEthnocentrism Ø Ø The tendency people have to evaluate others according to their own standards and experience While this tendency can help bind people together, it can also present serious obstacles to cross-cultural interactions (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØPerception Ø Stimuli received by our senses would overwhelm us if it weren’t somehow reduced; thus, Ø What we perceive—what we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell—is shaped in part by our culture (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØCategorization Ø Ø Categorization is the cognitive process by which all human beings simplify their world by grouping similar stimuli Our categories give meaning to our perceptions Ø Ø A prototype image best characterizes the meaning of a category Example: for the category “bird, ” we usually think of robins, not chickens (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

ØStereotypes Ø Ø Ø Stereotypes are socially constructed categories of people They usually obscure differences within groups They are frequently negative and play to ethnocentric ideas of “the other” (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Some Limits on Socialization Ø While socialization is a powerful process, it does have limits. Ø Ø Ø It is limited by a child’s physical limits It is limited because it is never finished, and thus never absolute; it can be changed It is limited because human beings are not passive recipients, but also actors in their environments (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Understanding Cultural Differences Ø Ø In a complex, pluralistic society like the United States, all people are in some ways multicultural While we all draw on common sources of knowledge, we are socialized by different agents, with different perspectives on that knowledge (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Variations in Cultural Environments Ø Ø Although the sources of cultural identity are the same in all societies, the content in those sources may be different Moreover, each community varies considerably in the number and character of its socializing agents con’t. (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Variations in Cultural Environments ØGiven this complexity, it is wise to consider the possible cultural elements in our own lives and in the lives of others ØDespite this potential for variation among individuals and within groups, there are similarities or generalizations that can be made about individuals who identify with particular groups con’t. (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Variations in Cultural Environments ØWhat is needed is a more sophisticated way of looking at diversity (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Such an approach to diversity involves several elements: ØQuestioning the “dominant model, ” or the prototype image ØQuestioning stereotypes ØLooking for commonalities among our differences ØThinking of differences as resources to learn from (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e

Something to Think About “By ignoring the cultural and social forms that are authorized by youth and simultaneously empower and disempower them, educators risk complicity in silencing and negating their students. This is unwittingly accomplished by refusing to recognize the importance of those sites and social practices outside of schools that actively shape student experiences and through which students often define and construct their sense of identity, politics, and culture. ” —Giroux and Simon (c) 2006 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cushner/Mc. Clelland/Safford, Human Diversity in Education, 5/e