Chapter Three 3 Beef Cattle Breeds and Breeding

Chapter- Three 3. Beef Cattle Breeds and Breeding Animal capable of converting energy into meat is categorized as beef breed

3. 2. Common Beef cattle breeds in the world § 3. 2. 1. Temperate Beef cattle breeds § A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species & that were arrived at through selective breeding §English Breeds (Bos Taurus) üHereford, Polled Hereford üAngus üRed Angus üShorthorn üSouth Devon üRed Poll

1. Hereford Origin: England Color: Red body with white face Morphology: horned/polled, vigor Mature weight: Bull (834 kg) and Cow (544 kg), Early maturing Behavior: docile & good mothering Others traits: Good foraging ability & hardiness

2. Angus Origin: England/Scotland Color: Commonly black and some red Morphology: polled, vigor Mature weight: bull (834 kg) and cow (544 kg) Meat traits: high quality carcass, well marbled meat

3. Shorthorn Originated in England Red; red & white or roan in color Originally used as a dual purpose breed for meat & milk Sometimes called the Durham breed

4. South Devon Origin: - Southwest England, Both horned and polled types are available Known by outstanding qualities of beef and maternal characteristics The breed is exceptionally adaptable to varying climatic conditions

5. Red Poll Developed as a dual-purpose breed in England (Suffolk and Norfolk This breed is universally polled They are small boned, short legged, round barreled , Known by the superior quality of their flesh, and their fattening freely at an early age

Continental Breeds (Bos Taurus) Simmental Limousin Gelbvieh Charolois Saler Main-Anjou Tarentaise Braunvieh Chianina Belgian Blue

1. Simmental (Switzerland) Origin: Switzerland, Behavior: docile Color: white to light straw face Morphology: horned, large bodied Mature weight: bull (1043 -1179 kg) and cow (658 -816 kg) Meat traits: rapid growth, thickly muscle with excess fat

2. Limousin (France) Origin: - France Morphology: - deep chest, a strong top-line, well-placed tailhead and strongly-muscled hindquarter Steers have won many carcass shows, living up to their reputation as the "Carcass Breed. "

3. Tarentaise (France) This breed is distinctive for its abundant muscling in the hip region, and they are exceptionally long from hooks to pins.

4. Gelbvieh (Germany) The breed is red in color, with strong skin pigmentation, and horned. The breed has superior Fertility, calving ease, Mothering ability, & Growth rate of the calves.

5. Charolais (France) Origin-France Characteristics- Fast Growth, excellent mothering, meaty Color-Creamy to White Size-Medium - large

6. Braunvieh (Germany) Still they are primarily used for milk production Body weights: - 544 to 680 kg for adult females and 952 to 1134 kg for adult males. Steers at optimum slaughter wt are 500 kg at 13 months of age.

7. Maine-Anjou (France) Morphology: - large, well-muscled, light red coats spotted with white Mature weight of bulls 998 to 1406 kg Cows 680 to 862 kg.

8. Saler (France) Typically horned and dark mahogany red in color Dual purpose: beef animals, milk for cheese products and strong sources of animal power.

9. Chianina (Italy) Color white to steel gray. Noticeable by extensive and well-defined muscling. They were originally valued for draft and later for meat production.

10. Belgian Blue (Belgium) A large sized animal with rounded outline and prominent muscles. The shoulder, back, loin and rump are heavily muscled The color can be white, blue roan They become older at sexual maturity. Calving interval and calf mortality are equal in the Belgian blue Performed lower in calving ease and calving rate.

3. 3 Beef cattle breeds in the Tropics Zebu Breeds (Bos Indicus) Gir Nelore Guzerate Brahman Red Sindhi Indo-Brazilian Ankole-Watusi Africander

1. Gir (India) Used for both dairy and beef production Weight and height: - 385 kg 130 cm for females and 545 kg and 135 cm males. Morphology: a rounded and domed forehead, long pendulous ears and horns which sweep back and spiral up

2. Nelore (Nellore) (Andra, Bengal Sea) Best for economic beef production in the tropics; Hardiness, Heat & Insect Resistance: - has a loose hide with sweat glands, covered by a white coat helps filtering and reflecting harmful sun rays. Their hide is thick & not penetrated by insects & is also rich in subcutaneous muscle layer which enables them to remove insects simply by shaking their coat best in Reproductive and Metabolic Efficiency; Meat Quality. It is highly palatable

3. Guzerat (India) have long, lyre shaped horns, long ears drooping & open to the front. Known by insect & disease resistance, longevity, & maternal ability. They are fertile under adverse conditions

4. Brahman (India) Desirable Qualities: Hardiness, climate, early maturity, High heat tolerance, resistant to disease & insects, good mothers, forage on poor range, gain rapidly, quality carcass, Unpredictable disposition

5. Indo-Brazilian (Brazil) The breed is white to dark grey in color. One of the notable feature of the breed are its extremely large, pendulous ears. It probably has the largest ears of any of the cattle breeds

6. Africander (South Africa) Origin: South Africa Color: Shade of red, white marks on ventral Morphology: large, muscular and hardy Mature weight: bull (454 -907 kg) and cow (363 -549 kg) Dressing percentage: 59 – 64 %

7. Ankole-Watusi (Uganda) Medium-sized animal, with weight 408 - 544 kg cows and 453 - 725 kg bulls. Their meat has very low fat and lower cholesterol than other commercial beef.

Composite Breeds (crossbred) Murray Grey Brangus Braford Beefmaster Santa Gertrudis Barzona Bonzmara

1. Murray Grey (Angus x Shorthorn) Originated from South Wales Docility seems to be a genuine asset of the breed both in the herd and in the feedlot. Known by Easy fleshing and highquality meat High cutability and less wastage

2. Brangus (Angus x Brahman) Developed to utilize the superior traits of Angus and Brahman Their genetics are stabilized at 3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Angus. The breed have proven resistant to heat and high humidity

3. Braford (Brahman x Hereford) Brafords are known for - superior maternal ability - Early puberty, calving ease - fertility, optimum milk production, Braford cattle are approximately 3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Hereford

4. Beefmaster (Brahman-Hereford x Brahman-Shorthorn) Originated in the United States ½ Brahman, ¼ Hereford, & ¼ Shorthorn

5. Santa Gertrudis (Brahman x Shorthorn) Cattle are approximately five-eighths Shorthorn and three-eighths Brahman. Color: - deep cherry-red The breed shows a relatively high degree of both heat and tick resistance. Are noted for ability to achieve high weight gains both on pasture and in feedlots.

6. Barzona (Herford x Africander) Modern Barzona are a medium size beef animal. It is known for feet and legs built to handle rough country. B/c they have an ability to utilize a high level of browse , as well as heat tolerance, Insect& disease resistance.

7. Bonzmara (Herford-Shorthorn x Africander)

Disease Resistant (Bos Taurus) N’Dama Tule Senepol

1. N’Dama (West Africa---Guinea) Distribution: Guinea, Nigeria, Gambia, Senegal Color: Usually yellow, fawn Morphology: Small, humpless, short fine limbs Mature weight: - bull (322 -419 kg) and - cow (210 -353 kg) - Dressing percentage: 40 – 56 %

2. Senepol (N’Dama x Red Poll) Senegal

3. Tuli (Zimbabwe) High fertility, hardiness, adaptability and excellent beef qualities, coupled with a docile nature have made the Tuli extremely popular in straight and cross-breeding programmes.

3. 4. Beef cattle breeds in Ethiopia Relatively beef type Ethiopian cattle breeds: Boran, Fogera Horro, Raya/Sanga Barka and Arsi

1. Boran Origin: Ethiopia; Distribution: Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia Color: Normally white/grey Mature weight: Morphology: fairly large legged with good conformation - Bull (539 -653 kg) & - Cow (346 -417 kg) Dressing percentage: 54 - 57 %

2. Fogera multi purpose animal: - Used for milk, meat & ploughing Color: - White/white with black spots , Horn: - Small pointed up & out, humped and Long & folded dewlap Dressing Percentage= 54. 5% Weight ranged from 344 to 491 kg

3. Barca/Begait Origin: Western Eritrea Distribution: Western Tigray Color: Usually white with black spots Morphology: Large legged with good body conformation Mature weight: 360 kg Dressing percentage: 48 – 55 %

4. Horro Origin: Ethiopia (Horro Gudru wereda of Wellega) Distribution: Wellega, West Shewa, Ellubabor, Jimma Color: Dominantly brown Morphology: Small hump size and short to medium horn size Mature weight: 250 kg Dressing percentage: 48 – 55 %

5. Arsi Distribution: - Arsi, Shewa & Bale district. Color: - Red with black muzzle Morphology: - Medium hump , large & thin dewlap, Small & falcate shape horn, Small, short &compact body. Excellent for Beef production Dressing Percentage = 53. 1%

6. Raya cattle Distributed around Raya Azebo Poor milker Used for ploughing Long horn

3. 5. Breeding 3. 5. 1. Traits of beef cattle Carcass grade Pasture gain Carcass fat thickness Carcass loin-eye-area Carcass tenderness Carcass rib-eye-area Marbling Birth weight Pre weaning weight Weaning weight Post weaning weight Yearling weight Mature weight Feedlot gain Carcass score at weaning Carcass weight = liveweight × dressing percentage Dressing percentage = (carcass weight ÷ liveweight) × 100

What tools are available? • Visual assessment

What tools are available? • Visual assessment • Pedigree Information

What tools are available? • Visual assessment • Pedigree Information • Performance information - simple, traditional measures Ex: growth, fertility, calving easy

What tools are available? • Visual assessment • Pedigree Information • Performance information - simple, traditional measures Ex: growth, fertility, calving easy -Advanced measures Ex: Ultrasound (IMF%, RE area, feed intake)

Economic Important Traits • • • 205 day adjusted weaning weight Yearling weight Birth weight Rib eye area Intramuscular fat Milk production Average daily gain Feed efficiency Calf crop %

Heritability Estimates for economical important traits • Rate of Gain (feedlot cattle) – 40 -68% • Ribeye Area – 50 -70% • Calving Interval (Fertility) – 10 % • Weaning Weight – 30 % • Birth Weight – 40 % • Fat Thickness – 45 % • Pasture Gain – 30 % • Cancer-eye Suscept. – 30 %

Types of Breeding • Pure breeding systems: – Out crossing: the mating of relatively unrelated animals within the same breed. – Inbreeding: production of offspring from parents more closely related than the average of a population – Line breeding: a form of inbreeding in which an attempt is made to concentrate the inheritance of some ancestor in the pedigree.

Crossbreeding Systems – Crossbreeding: the mating of animals of different breeds. – Two-breed cross – Two-breed backcross – Three-breed rotational cross – Three-breed terminal cross

Frame size vs. production vs. type • Size - frame • Grazing area vs frame • Market size vs frame • Nutrition vs frame

3. 6. Genetic improvement of beef cattle Genetic improvement options 1. Selection and use of local breeds 2. Replacement of local breeds by more productive exotic breeds 3. Crossbreeding Use of local breeds Advantages Available in large number Well adapted to local conditions and husbandry practices Posses a desirable genes for acclimatization Disadvantages - Natural selection favored for survival traits at the expense of production traits - Genetic improvement by selection is low

§ Why genetic improvement? § Potential benefits from improved beef cattle include: ü Enhanced animal well- being, ü Increased profitability for beef cattle producers, ü More desirable products for beef consumers, ü Enhanced resource conservation and more effective forage resource utilization.

Genetic improvement attempts in Ethiopia In Ethiopia no breed type solely kept for beef production. So far no considerable beef development and research endeavors undertaken. IAR, AUA, ILCA and Mo. A made efforts in beef cattle breeding. Relatively beef type Ethiopian cattle breeds: Boran, Horro, Barka, Arusi, Raya/Sanga and Fogera

Alemaya University of Agriculture (AUA) X Boran Hereford Crossbred

AUA X Boran Angus Crossbred

AUA X Charolaise Boran Crossbred

AUA X Boran Crossbred Santa Gertrudis X Boran Crossbred Brahman

Ministry of Agriculture (Mo. A) - Selection of Boran cattle (In Abernosa ranches) genetic gain of 0. 2 % obtained (i. e low) Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) Local (Boran, Horro) X Friesian Local (Boran, Horro) X Simmental Local (Boran, Horro) X Jersey Results obtained Rapid daily gain Improved feed intake Improved feed conversion efficiency Improved performance (milk yield and live body weight)

Chapter 4: Feeds and Feeding of beef cattle 4. 1. Nutrient requirements 4. 2. Classes of nutrients 4. 3. Feedstuffs 4. 4. Ration formulation for different classes of beef animals

§ Basic Required Nutrients v. Water v. Protein v. Minerals v. Vitamins v. Fat v. Energy (carbohydrate)

4. 1. Nutrient requirements § Why nutrient requirement? § Underfeeding of nutrients restricts production & affect the health of an animal; § Overfeeding of nutrients increases feed costs, can result in excessive excretion of nutrients into the environment, & at excessively high amounts may be toxic or cause adverse health effects. § So, appropriate feeding is economical

§ Beef cattle require nutrients to support ü Body maintenance, ü Reproduction, ü Lactation, & ü growth. § The nutritional needs of beef cattle vary by: ü Age, ü Sex,

ü Stage of production, ü Performance level, ü Weight. ü Physiological & environmental stressors, such as sickness & weather, can also impact nutritional requirements. § Beef cattle need water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, & vitamins. § Of these nutrients, they require water in the greatest amounts daily

§ Maintenance- a ration which is adequate to prevent any loss or gain of tissue in the body when there is no production. § The maintenance component includes all the nutrients required for the animal to: ü Breath, ü Move, ü Digest food, ü Keep warm, ü Repair tissues, & maintain body weight.

§ Weight, age, breed, physiological status, § activity, & environmental conditions are the primary variables impacting maintenance requirements. § The larger the animal, the greater its maintenance requirement, especially energy & protein. § Extremely heavy muscled breeds will have greater maintenance requirements than light muscled breeds.

§ Pregnancy & lactation increase basal metabolism, so maintenance requirements are altered accordingly. § Heavy milking breeds have an increased maintenance requirement. § Increased activity or rough terrain will increase maintenance energy needs as will extremely cold, hot, wet, or muddy conditions.

§ Lactation-Nutrient requirements for lactation are based on the amount of milk at peak lactation & the composition of the milk. § Cows that produce more milk, & milk with more fat & protein, will have higher nutrient requirements. Growth. § Requirements for growth are determined by actual weight, average daily gain (growth rate), weight at maturity, & composition of gain.

§ Composition of gain simply means whether cattle are putting on more muscle or more fat. § E. g. , protein requirements will be higher for young cattle b/se they are gaining more muscle than fat. § Reproduction- Based on expected calf birth weight & stage of gestation. § Usually, pregnancy does not significantly affect requirements until the last three months of pregnancy when the fetus is growing rapidly.

§ There are two ways to determine the nutrient requirements of beef cows & calves. § The first & most useful for most producers & Extension personnel is to use pre-calculated tables of nutrient requirements derived from the Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows. § The second method is to use the new Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cows computer program.

4. 2. Classes of Feeds • Definition- any ingredients or material fed to animals for purposes of sustaining them • Classes of Feeds – Roughages – Concentrates – By-products – Protein supplements – Minerals, vitamins, and additives

Classes of Feeds-Roughages • Definition: >18% fiber and lower in energy & low digestibility compared to concentrates • Generally; TDN=40 -60% and is high in Ca & K – Forage/Pasture, hay, crop-residue (corn, milo), silage (fermented, high-moisture forage), haylage (lowmoisture type silage), green chop

Classes of Feeds cont. • Concentrates- high in energy, low in fiber and < 20% protein – Corn, milo, oats, etc. • By-product feeds (from plant and animal processing) carrots, turnip tops, fodder beets • Protein supplements- high in nitrogen – Oilseed Plant by-products (SBM, CSM)

Classes of Feeds cont. • NPN= non-protein nitrogen – urea, ammoniated molasses or chloride, biruet, etc – Urea=45% Nitrogen X 6. 25 = 281% protein equivalent • Minerals - Na. Cl, limestone, dical, etc. – major -Ca, P, Mg, S – trace - Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Zn, Se, etc.

Classes of Feeds • Vitamins – Natural versus synthetics – water vs fat soluble classification – A, D, & E are most common in ruminants • Special Feeds – Fats and oils (increase calories without bulk) – molasses (increase energy and palatability)

Classes of Feeds • Feed additives and implants – increase efficiency of gain, prevent diseases, preserve the feed • antibiotics, hormones, growth promotants, repartitioning agents, etc.

4. 3. Feedstuffs § Feedstuff is an ingredient used in formulating a ration. § Feedstuffs are often classified as forages & concentrates. § Concentrates refers feedstuffs with high quality, low fiber, high digestibility, high energy & protein feeds & include the cereal grains, milling by-products, protein sources, & fats.

§ Concentrates have a high digestible energy content per unit of weight or volume. § The energy is derived mostly from starches, sugars, other readily available carbohydrates, & fats or oils. § Forages are characterized by being more fibrous or bulky & generally represent the vegetative portion of a plant. § The digestible energy content of forages is lower per unit weight or volume than concentrates.

§ As-fed—Refers to the moisture & nutrient content of feedstuffs normally fed to animals. § Dry matter—The portion of feed that remains after all the water has been removed. § It contains the nutrients other than water. § Nutrients—The chemical substances found in feedstuffs that can be used, & are necessary, for the maintenance, production, & health of animals.

§ Ration—The amount of feed an animal receives in a 24 -hour period. § Balanced ration—A ration that supplies nutrients in the proper amount & proportion for an animal’s maintenance, growth, lactation, &/ or gestation. § Information necessary to compose a balanced ration includes the nutrient composition of feedstuffs & the animal’s nutrient requirements.

§ Nutrient composition—The amount of specific nutrients contained in a ration or feedstuff. § Normally expressed as a percentage of dry matter. § Nutrient requirement—The amount of a specific nutrient that is required to meet an animal’s minimum need for maintenance such as ü growth, ü reproduction, ü lactation, & ü work.

§ Nutritional requirements depend on the type, size, & physiological status of the animal. § TDN—Total digestible nutrients. A term used to express energy in feeds.

Beef Cattle Digestion • diagram of ruminant-handout – Esophageal groove – immature ruminants – Rumen, omasum, abomasum and reticulum – Small Intestine-duodenum, illeum, jejunem – Large Intestine-colon, cecum, rectum

Digestive System • stomach in ruminants comprises 25 % of body • rumen comprises 75 % of stomach • fermentation: digest cellulose, plant tissue, urea, NPN, B & K vitamins • consist of bacteria and protozoa (200 billion/teaspoon)

Characteristics of Ruminants • Mouth – no upper incisor or wolf teeth – use lips and tongue to grab food • Four compartments to the ruminant – Consist of microorganisms – Produce Volatile Fatty Acids/ acetic, propionic, butyric

Volatile fatty acids (VFA) • Produced in large amounts through ruminal fermentation and are of paramount importance in that they provide greater than 70% of the ruminant's energy supply. Virtually all of the acetic, proprionic and butyric acids formed in the rumen are absorbed across the ruminal

VFA’s cont. • Epithelium, from which they are carried by ruminal veins to the portal vein and hence through the liver. Continuous removal of VFA from the rumen is important not only for distribution, but to prevent excessive and damaging drops in p. H of rumen fluid.

Ruminants • Prehension- the process of gathering food to the mouth • Mastication - the process of chewing • Eructation (belching of gas) – Carbon Di. Oxide and Methane • Enzymes- organic catalyst which speed up a biochemical reaction without being used up

Rumination • Rumination-fermentation – rechewing usually > 8 hours/day dependent on diet (increase fiber, increase rumination time) – CO 2 and Methane are the primary gases given off during rumen fermentation

FUNCTION OF FEEDS • Maintenance- a ration which is adequate to prevent any loss or gain of tissue in the body when there is no production the difference in energy needs are related to the amount of activity • Growth- increase in size of muscles, bones, internal and external parts of the body (the foundation of animal production) • Finishing- the laying on or deposition of fat • Production – lactation, conception, etc.

Beef Cow Nutrition Objective • Feed little as possible as long as we don’t damage reproduction, milk, or longevity • Overfeeding causes decreased longevity, dystocia, reprod. Rate, and milk prod. • Underfeeding causes delayed estrus, puberty, lowers conception rate and milk prod.

Phase Feeding for the Beef Female • Feeding accounts for approx. 2/3 of total costs after real estate acquisition • Feeding has the greatest influence on growth and performance • Yet, reproduction is the most important economic important trait • Feeding influences growth, reproduction (most critical), lactation, etc.

Phases of Feeding • Birth to weaning • Weaning to first breeding • First breeding to first calving • First two productive years (1 st two calves) • Third and subsequent years of production

Phase Feeding • Plane of nutrition is dependent upon energy and protein requirements along with forage quality and availability • Can be somewhat breed dependent • European cattle are later maturing and will utilize more forage

Phase Feeding • First phase- Birth to Weaning • objective is to develop replacement females to weaning with maximum subsequent productivity at minimum costs

Phase Feeding • Growthier females at weaning will usually reach puberty earlier, calve on time and return to rebreeding earlier than slower growing heifers • Weaning is usually around 205 days or 7 months of age

Phase Feeding • Second phase - Weaning to First Breeding • objective is to promote adequate growth to insure sexual maturity • first breeding should be done at 60 -65 % of the estimated mature weight • ADG of 1 -1. 5 lbs. per day is recommended

Phase Feeding • Third phase - First Breeding to First Calving • objective is to promote sufficient growth and body development to allow heifers to deliver a calf, and to prepare the heifers physiologically to be able to withstand the rigors of first lactation and rebreeding.

Phase Feeding • Females should gain 70 -75% of their weaning weight or be 70 -75% of their mature weight at their first calving time.

Phase Feeding • Fourth phase - First two productive years • Objective is to provide a sufficient plane of nutrition to allow the young cows to lactate, rebreed and continue to grow • cows should not lose more than 15% of their weight during the winter

Phase Feeding • Fifth phase - Third and subsequent productive years • Objective is to maintain efficient productivity • nutrient requirements actually decrease • Should not lose more than 20% during the winter

Feeding in General • Obesity can be a major problem • Body Condition Scores should be utilized • Scores of 1 -9, where 1 is very thin and 9 is obese : Handout • This can be breed, feed or frame size dependent

Feeding in General Heifers - breed more than needed breed 30 days before the mature cows palpate 60 days after breeding season Cows > 10 years of age; the physical condition will diminish • Bulls - during intense breeding season; requirements may increase by 2 -3 X • If forage is limiting, feed bulls separate • •

Feeding Systems • Creep feeding– the supplemental feeding of young nursing animals in an enclosure which is accessible to them but not to their parent • gains for young animals are cheap gains due to less fat content in young animals and less consumption/body wt. • adv. - increases weaning wt. , facilitates fall calving, uniformity, achieve genetic potential, assists first calf heifers, etc.

Creep feeding- is it feasible? • whenever it is most likely profitable • usually when forage or milk is limited • conditions we see in drought that results in overgrazing by mother, thus forage is limited • young cows or very old cows • To be feasible, value difference of the calf should be over the cost of the creep feed • Over creep feeding can cause reduced subsequent milk production because of excessive fat in udders

Feeding and Management of Cows • critical time of nutrition – 30 days before calving – 70 days after calving • growth of calf • reproduction efficiency of cow • Lactation • Rebreeding

Feeding and Management of Brood Cows – Feed the herd according to cow reproductive pattern • Dependant upon: – Dry pregnancy – Lactating – Replacement heifers

Feeding and Management of Brood Cows – heifers – the last 3 -4 months before parturition is important – weight makes a difference – provide for maintenance and growth BCS

Feeding and Management of Brood Cows • Reproduction and Nutrition – Energy is more important than protein – P supplementation increases % calf crop – Increase vit A – Level of feed before and after calving – Pregnant cows should not gain over 100 lbs during gestation

• Feeding and Management of Brood Cows Winter Feeding – Grass decreases in protein must either dry lot or supplement – Energy is important and should be increased by 10% for every 10 degrees below 20 degrees F • Range Feeding Deficiencies – Energy- lack of feed – Protein - mature grasses – Minerals - lowered salt and P/ vit. - A & ? D, E

Feeds for supplementation • • Oilseed meals Grain Breeder/range cubes Protein blocks Liquid feeds (protein or protein/energy) Syrup blocks or tubs Hays

Supplementation • when supplementing; need to know 4 things: – Nutrient composition – Availability – Intake – Requirements

Supplementation questions • How much to feed and still make max use • What kind • What form • How often • Additives • Alternatives

Factors affecting supplementation • • • Forage quality Forage quantity and availability Body condition score Body size Milking level Age

Feeding of Bulls • Age and condition / exercise increase bulk, decrease grain ( do not want them too fat) • feed young bulls more for growth and development. • overfeeding results reduced sperm counts, unsoundness, etc. • mature bulls- increase lbs of grain plus roughage as needed to fit BCS

Bulls cont. • Young bulls – Feed a 12 -14% CP ration at 1. 5 -2% of CWT – Make sure they have plenty of free choice forage – Thumb rule is to feed a 14% CP ration until 14 months of age

Pastures • Two kinds- native and improved • Range covers > 40% of the world land area • Grasses, browse (woody stem perennial), forbs (hollow stem annual)-weeds • Cattle prefer grasses, deer prefer browse • Thumb rule- graze 1/2 in summer and save 1/2 for the winter

Forages • • Forage intake vs digestibility Factors that influence intake Body size Forage availability- biggest problem we face Forage palatability Gut fill Rate of passage

Forage intake • Higher the quality forage, higher intake • Early maturity • Lower proportion of cell walls • Higher protein • Increased rate of passage • Digestibility increases • Lowers gut fill

Forages • Rate of passage or digestion depends on: • Plant species • Plant maturity- more mature, less digestible • Cell walls=cellulose vs • Cell contents=sugars

Forages • maturity increases, cell content decreases • protein content> 6% for optimum digestion • preparation method - pelleting, grinding, etc

Characteristics of grasses on native range • slower growth rate- reduces quality • longer period to reach maturity • slower re-growth

Proper utilization of range • • • Maintain grazing distribution through: Fencing water Shade burning Mowing or spraying Fertilizer Supplemental feeding

Improved pastures • • • Don’t graze in early fall or late summer Bermuda grass- adaptable Hybrids- *coastal, tifton 85, common Good response to N and water Problems- requires cross fencing & N

Proper Management • graze when 6 -8”, fertilize NPK early spring and N in summer and late summer • can overseed with fescue, wheat, rye in the fall for winter pasture • an increase in N does not necessarily increase performance • yet, it increases quantity, thus stocking rate

Thumb Rules • when a cow consumes enough energy, she usually consumes enough protein • Winter- cow should consume 1. 5% of body wt with poor forage • 2. 0% with good quality hay • 2. 5% with excellent forage such as alfalfa or wheat

NPN- non-protein nitrogen • Urea is most popular; other ammonium chloride, biuret, etc. • most effective with high CHO source diet and low protein requirement, twice daily feeding, bacteria in the rumen require energy • not as well utilized at > 12 % protein or in young growing calves or creep

4. 4. Ration formulation for different classes of beef animals § Why ration formulation? § To provide animals with a consumable quantity of feed stuffs that will supply all required nutrients in adequate & do so in a cost effective way. § Ration—a daily supply of feed. § Feed costs are a major component of the total operating expense for most beef operations.

§ By formulating & feeding balanced rations, you can conserve feed costs while allowing for the most efficient level of production. § Ration balancing depends on having accurate & reliable nutrient analyses of feedstuffs in addition to knowing the animals’ nutrient requirements. § You may formulate feeds in three ways: ü Pearson square ü Substitution methods ü Computer methods

Important points to remember § Before, starting formulation, indentify/know: ü Information about feedstuff nutrient composition ü Animal nutrient requirements. ü Locally available feed stuff ü You need to know the dry matter percentage of feedstuffs & understand how to convert as-fed values to dry-matter values & vice versa.

Pearson methods § Pearson’s Square is a simple, quick way to calculate the amounts of feed necessary to meet a nutrient requirement of the animal. § This method is most effective when only two feeds are being used. § It can be used only for two feed materials; however, one or both can be a mixture.

§ To use Pearson’s Square: § 1. Subtract the nutrient requirement diagonally from the nutrient concentration at the center. § Make any negative numbers positive. § 2. After subtracting across the diagonal, sum the parts of the two feeds to get the total. § 3. Then, divide each part by the sum of the parts to calculate the percent of each feed in the ration.

§ E. g. Formulate a 14% CP diet using corn (8. 8% CP) a protein supplement (38%CP) Corn 8. 8 24 14 Protein supplement 38 5. 2 Sum 29. 2 Corn = 24*100/29. 2 = 82. 2% Protein supplement = 5. 2*100/29. 2 = 17. 8% So, the ration must be contain 82. 2% corn & 17. 8% protein supplement, to provide 14% crude protein.

§ It is possible to use pearson’s square to balance more than two ingredients. § E. g. , with two separate grain mixes (A & B), each made up of two ingredients, for a total of four feedstuffs, pearson’s square method can be used to calculate the amount of grain mixes A & B needed to meet the requirements. § Grain mix A is 40% corn & 60% soybean hulls (SBH), whereas grain mix B is 50% dried distillers grains (DDG) & 50% cottonseed hulls (CSH).

§ The energy requirement being balanced for is 1. 44 Mcal/d. The energy contents of the feeds are listed as follow: Feed Corn Soybean hulls Dried distillers grains Cottonseed hulls Energy (Mcal/kg) 2. 01 1. 37 1. 97 0. 48 § First, treat grain mixes A & B as the two feeds to use in the pearson’s square. § This means you must calculate the amount of energy (Mcal/kg) available in each mix.

1. Grain mix A § a. 40% corn at 2. 01 Mcal/kg, so 2. 01 * (40 ÷ 100) = 0. 80 Mcal/kg § b. 60% SBH at 1. 37 Mcal/kg, so 1. 37 * (60 ÷ 100) = 0. 82 Mcal/kg § c. 0. 80 + 0. 82 = 1. 62 Mcal/kg § 2. Grain mix B § a. 50% DDG at 1. 97 Mcal/kg, so 1. 97 * (50 ÷ 100) = 0. 98 Mcal/kg § b. 50% CSH at 0. 48 Mcal/kg, so 0. 48 * (50 ÷ 100) = 0. 24 Mcal/kg § c. 0. 98 + 0. 24 = 1. 22 Mcal/kg § Make sure the energy requirement (1. 44 Mcal/d) falls within the range of the energy content of each grain mix (1. 22 to 1. 62 Mcal/kg)

Graim mix A 1. 62 Mcal/kg Grain mix B 1. 22 Mcal/kg 0. 22 Mcal/kg 1. 44 Mcal/kg 0. 18 Mcal/kg § Sum = 0. 4 Mcal/kg § Divide each part by the total to calculate the % of each feed to include § The total ration will be 55% grain mix A (40% corn & 60% SBH) & 45% grain mix B (50% DDG & 50% CSH). :

a. 0. 22 * (40 ÷ 100) = 0. 09 parts corn b. 0. 22 * (60 ÷ 100) = 0. 13 parts SBH c. 0. 18 * (50 ÷ 100) = 0. 09 parts DDG d. 0. 18 * (50 ÷ 100) = 0. 09 parts CSH § For grain mix A: ü 0. 09 parts corn ÷ 0. 4 total parts = 0. 225 ü 0. 13 parts SBH ÷ 0. 4 total parts = 0. 325 § For grain mix B: ü 0. 09 parts DDG ÷ 0. 4 total parts = 0. 225 ü 0. 09 parts CSH ÷ 0. 4 total parts = 0. 225

§ Check the math as follows: § 0. 225% corn * 2. 01 Mcal/kg = 0. 45 Mcal/d § 0. 325% SBH * 1. 37 Mcal/kg = 0. 44 Mcal/d § 0. 225% DDG * 1. 97 Mcal/kg = 0. 44 Mcal/d § 0. 225% CSH * 0. 48 Mcal/kg = 0. 11 Mcal/d § 0. 45 + 0. 44 + 0. 11 = 1. 44 Mcal/d

§ Converting As-Fed to Dry Matter & vice versa § Feeds can be reported on DM or wet/as-fed basis. § Mostly nutrient concentrations is reported as a % of DM. § E. g. Alfalfa silage analyzed to contain 7% CP on an as-fed basis & contained 40% DM. What would be the CP content on DM basis?

Algebraic formulation § Algebraic diet formulation (using an equation with one unknown, X) § E. g. Formulate a 14% CP diet using corn (8. 8% CP) & a protein supplement (38% CP), & also check the results for accuracy

Solution Let say x is % supplement % corn =100 -x 0. 088 (100 - X) +0. 38 X= 0. 14 (100) = 8. 8 -0. 088 x + 0. 38 x = 14 = 0. 38 x – 0. 088 = 14 – 8. 8 = 0. 292 x = 5. 2 X = 5. 2/0. 292 = 17. 81% So, % corn = 100 – x = 100 – 17. 81 = 82. 19 § Check 0. 088 (82. 19) + 0. 38 (17. 81) = § 7. 233 + 6. 768 = 14. 00

Computer assisted formulation § The advantages of computer program for ration balancing: ü It generate the nutrient requirements after entering the animal description. ü It provide a list of feed ingredients & their nutrient composition to choose from. ü It show the balance of all nutrients simultaneously. ü Formulas are built into the program, so mathematical mistakes are also eliminated.