Chapter ten Pragmatics Pragmatics Pragmatics Communication depends not

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Chapter ten Pragmatics

Chapter ten Pragmatics

Pragmatics • Pragmatics: – Communication depends not only on recognizing the meaning of words

Pragmatics • Pragmatics: – Communication depends not only on recognizing the meaning of words in an utterance but recognizing what the speakers mean by their utterance. – i. e. there aspects of meaning that depend more on context and the communicative intentions of the speaker. – The study of ‘speaker meaning’ (or intention) is called pragmatics.

 • Pragmatics is the study od ‘invisible’ meaning/ i. e. how we recognize

• Pragmatics is the study od ‘invisible’ meaning/ i. e. how we recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said or written. – Thus we have to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations when we try to communicate. – See ‘heated attendant parking’ and ‘baby’ examples in book • In order to reach a correct understanding we have to use: – 1/ the meaning of the words (lexical) – 2/ the context in which they occur – 3/ and some pre-existing knowledge of the world • Thus, our interpretation of meaning is not based solely on words but on what we think the writer intended to communicate.

Context • There are two types of context: • 1/Linguistic Context also known as

Context • There are two types of context: • 1/Linguistic Context also known as Co-text which describes the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. • The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on the meaning of words. – E. g. , the homonym ‘bank’ in ‘She has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash. ’ – we know from the linguistic context which type of bank is intended • 2/ Physical context: We can interpret the meaning of words on the basis of the physical context. – E. g. , if a building in the city has the word BANK written on it , the physical location will influence our interpretation. • Our understanding of what we read and hear is tied to the time and place in which we encounter linguistic expressions.

Deixis • Some common words in English that can’t be interpreted at all if

Deixis • Some common words in English that can’t be interpreted at all if we don’t know the immediate physical context of the speaker. / i. e. at the time of the utterance – E. g. , here, this, that, now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow – Pronouns, you, me, he, she, it, them – You’ll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today. • Deictic expressions: bits of language that we can only understand in terms of the speaker’s intended meaning. We use deixis to point to : – Person deixis (things: it, this, these boxes) or people (him, them, those) – Spatial deixis/ location (here, there, near) – Temporal deixis/ time (now, then, last week) • All these expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind. – E. g. , Here she comes – There she goes

Reference • Reference: an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to

Reference • Reference: an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something. We can use either: – Proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer) – Other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) – Or pronouns (he, she, it) • The reference depends on who is using it because for every word or phrase there is a ‘range of reference. ’ – E. g. ‘the war’ example in the beginning of the chapter • We can also refer to things when we are not sure what to call them. – The blue thing – The icky stuff

Inference • Inference: is additional information used by the listener to create a connection

Inference • Inference: is additional information used by the listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant. / i. e. they are mental calculations we have to do to reach an understanding, e. g. , – Can I look at your Chomsky? – Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. – In order to understand the utterance we have to make the inference: ‘if X is the name of the writer of the book, then X can be used to refer to a copy of a book by the writer. ’ • Remember that it is performed by the listener (or reader). See examples: – Picasso is in the museum. – We saw Shakespeare in London. – Jennifer is wearing Calvin Klein.

Anaphora • Anaphora: a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. / mostly we

Anaphora • Anaphora: a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. / mostly we use anaphora in a text to maintain reference. • The first mention is called an antecedent. – We saw a puppy in a home video. (antecedent) – The puppy was struggling and shaking. (anaphoric expression) – It jumped out of the bath and ran away. (anaphoric expression) • The connection between an antecedent and an anaphoric expression is created by using: – Pronouns (it) – Or a phrase with the plus a noun (the puppy) – Or another noun related to the antecedent (the little dog) • Such connections are made by using ‘inference’ – We found a house to rent but the kitchen was very small. – “if X is a house then X has a kitchen”

Presupposition • Presupposition: what a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by

Presupposition • Presupposition: what a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by a listener (or reader) • We design our linguistic messages based on assumptions about what our listeners already know • Remember that it is performed by the speaker (or writer) – Your brother is waiting outside. (there is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother) – When did you stop smoking? – Why did you run the red light?

Speech acts • Speech acts: the action performed by a speaker with an utterance.

Speech acts • Speech acts: the action performed by a speaker with an utterance. • to describe actions such as ‘requesting’, ‘commanding’, ‘questioning’ or ‘informing’ – E. g. , ‘I’ll be there at six. ’ (you are not just speaking, you are ‘promising’)

Direct and Indirect speech acts – Did you eat the pizza? – Eat the

Direct and Indirect speech acts – Did you eat the pizza? – Eat the pizza! – You ate the pizza. Structure ? ? ? Function ? ? ? • Direct speech acts: for example, when we use an interrogative structure (e. g. , Did you. . ? ) with the function of a question/ i. e. , we don’t know something and we are asking someone to provide information. • Indirect speech acts: for example, when we use the interrogative structure but we are not really asking for information/ we use it to make a request. – Can you pass the salt? – You left the door open. • Thus, whenever one of the three syntactic structures is used to perform a function other than its normal function the result is an indirect speech act. • Miscommunication could happen if one person fails to recognize another person’s indirect speech act. – Do you know where the Ambassador hotel is? Yes I do. (and walks away) (its an indirect speech act used as a request not as a question)

Politeness • Face: your face in pragmatics is your public self-image. / the emotional

Politeness • Face: your face in pragmatics is your public self-image. / the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. • Politeness: showing awareness and consideration of another person’s face. • Face-threatening act: behaving as if you have more social power than the other person – Give me that paper! • Face-saving act: when you say something that lessens the possible threat to another’s face. – Could you pass me that paper? – (the indirect speech act in the form of a question removes the social power/ the request is less threatening)

Negative and positive face • Negative: the need to be independent and free from

Negative and positive face • Negative: the need to be independent and free from imposition. / shows concern about imposition – I’m sorry to bother you, but …. • Positive face: the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of a group. / shows solidarity – Let’s do this together…. • The appropriate use of language for ‘politness’ differs from culture to culture.