Chapter Seven Memory Copyright 2012 John Wiley Sons

Chapter Seven Memory Copyright© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today’s events. Albert Einstein THE NATURE OF MEMORY © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Defining Memory Constructive Process Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories Memory is not a “videotape” of the experience, memory is constructed! WILEY VIDEO Drive Brain Power ANIMATION Enhancing Memory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Models of Memory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Models of Memory, cont. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

In Depth: Three-Stage Model ANIMATION © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Enhancing Memory

Sensory Memory Iconic Memory Echoic Memory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Short-Term Memory (STM) Also known as “working memory” Maintenance Rehearsal Repeating information over and over to maintain it in shortterm memory (STM) Elaborative Rehearsal Linking new information to previously stored material (also known as deeper levels of processing) Chunking Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Encoding Memory Capacity of Short-Term Working Memory and Working Memory depends on § If some information is selected from sensory memory to be sent to shortterm memory, how much information can we hold there? § George Miller (b. 1920) proposed that we can hold 7 +/-2 information bits (for example, a string of 5 to 9 letters). § More recent research suggests that the average person, free from distraction, can hold about: 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words. Test: –V M 3 C A Q 9 L D concentration. Despite this talent, it is generally a myth that we can handle two streams of similar information simultaneously. Test: see how many of these letters and numbers you can recall after they disappear.

Duration of Short-Term Memory (STM) Lloyd Peterson and Margaret Peterson wanted to know the duration of short term memory? Their experiment (1959): 1. People were given triplets of consonants (e. g. , “VMF”). 2. To prevent rehearsing, the subjects had to do a distracting task. 3. People were then tested at various times for recall. Result: After 12 seconds, most memory of the consonants had decayed and could not be retrieved.

Encoding: Effortful Processing Strategies If we have short-term recall of only 7 letters, but can remember 5 words, doesn’t that mean we could remember more than 7 letters if we could group them into words? § This is an example of an effortful processing strategy, a way to encode information into memory to keep it from decaying and make it easier to retrieve. § Effortful processing is also known as studying. Examples: § Chunking (grouping) § Mnemonics: images, maps, and peg-words § Hierarchies/categories § Rehearsal, especially distributed practice § Deep processing § Semantic processing § Making information personally meaningful Can you remember this list?

Long-term Memory (LTM) WILEY VIDEO © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Drive Brain Power

Retrieval and LTM Serial-Position Effect Information at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list is remembered better than material in the middle. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Retrieval Cues § Retrieval challenge: memory is not stored as a file that can be retrieved by searching alphabetically. § Instead, it is stored as a web of associations: § conceptual § contextual § emotional Memory involves a web of associated concepts.

Priming: Retrieval is Affected by Activating our Associations § Priming triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept, just as a spider feels movement in a web and follows it to find the bug. § Our minds work by having one idea trigger another; this maintains a flow of thought. Priming Example: Define the word “bark. ” Now what is the definition of “bark”?

The Power of Priming § Priming has been called “invisible memory” because it affects us unconsciously. § In the case of tree “bark” vs. dog “bark, ” the path we follow in our thoughts can be channeled by priming. § We may have biases and associations stored in memory that also influence our choices. Study: People primed with money-related words were less likely to then help another person. Study: Priming with an image of Santa Claus led kids to share more candy. Study: people primed with a missing child poster then misinterpreted ambiguous adult-child interactions as kidnapping.

Context-Dependent Memory § Part of the web of associations of a memory is the context. What else was going on at the time we formed the memory? § We retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as when we formed the memory. Did you forget a psychology concept? Just sitting down and opening your book might bring the memory back. Words learned underwater are better retrieved underwater.

State-Dependent Memory § Our memories are not just linked to the external context in which we learned them. § Memories can also be tied to the emotional state we were in when we formed the memory. § Mood-congruent memory refers to the tendency to selectively recall details that are consistent with one’s current mood. This biased memory then reinforces our current mood! Memories can even be linked to physiological states: “I wonder if you’d mind giving me directions. I’ve never been sober in this part of town before. ”

The Serial Position Effect Priming and context cues are not the only factors which make memory retrieval selective. The serial position effect refers to the tendency, when learning information in a long list, to more likely recall the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect). Which words of your national anthem are easiest to recall? In what situation is the recency effect strongest?

Retrieval and LTM (cont. ) Retrieval Cue Clue or prompt that helps stimulate recall or retrieval of a stored piece of information from long-term memory Recall Retrieving a memory using a general, nonspecific clue (e. g. , essay test) Recognition Retrieving a memory using a specific cue (e. g. , multiplechoice test) Priming Prior exposure to a stimulus (or prime) facilitates OR inhibits the processing of new information, even when one has no conscious memory of the initial learning and storage © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Retrieval and LTM (cont. ) Encoding Specificity Principle Retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to the conditions when the information was encoded Context-dependent memory Ex: Recall in the same seat or classroom Mood congruence Ex: When you are mad at your partner, you recall the times s/he made you mad! State-dependent memory Ex: If you learn a joke while under the influence of alcohol, you’ll remember it better in that state. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Improving Long-Term Memory © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Demonstration Listen carefully to the list of words—you’ll be asked to recall as many as possible. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The existence of forgetting has never been proved: we only know that some things do not come to our mind when we want them to. Nietzsche FORGETTING © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Five Theories of Forgetting © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Two Types of Interference © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Factors Key to Forgetting Misinformation Effect Memory distortion resulting from misleading post-event information Sleeper Effect Source Amnesia Forgetting the True Source of a memory Information Overload Information from an unreliable Trying to learn too much at source, which was initially one time! discounted. Later gains Use , not ted u credibility because source is b i r dist assed m forgotten e!! ctic pra © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Research Challenge: How Quickly We Forget Answer these questions! Read the description of the study on page 260! 1. Hypothesis? 2. Research method (experimental, descriptive, correlational, or biological)? 3. If you chose the: Experimental method—label the IV, DV, experimental group, and control group. Descriptive method—is this a naturalistic observation, survey, or case study? Correlational method—is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation? Biological method—identify the specific research tool (e. g. , brain dissection, CT scan, etc. ) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory and the Criminal Justice System ü Unreliability of eyewitness testimony ü Confidence in memory is not a predictor of accuracy ü Importance of false memories ü Bitter debate about repressed memories https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=I 4 V 6 ao. Yu. Dcg&feature=player_embedded © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY WILEY VIDEO Wiring the Brain © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Two Ways Repeated stimulation of a synapse can strengthen the synapse by causing the dendrites to grow more spines Long-Term Potentiation Long-lasting increase in neural excitability, which may be a biological mechanism for learning and memory The ability of a particular neuron to release or accept neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. WILEY VIDEO Memory Storage

Emotional Arousal and Memory Flashbulb Memory Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events Stress hormones initially INCREASE memory, but prolonged or extreme stress INTERFERES with memory. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Brain and Memory Damage to any one of these areas can affect encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. For example, what effect might damage to your amygdala have on your relationships with others? How might damage to your thalamus affect your day-to-day functioning? © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Causes of Memory Loss: Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) (a) In retrograde amnesia, the person loses memories of events that occured before the accident, yet has no trouble remembering things that happened afterward. Old, “retro” memories are lost. (b) In anterograde amnesia, the person cannot form new memories for events that occur after the accident (new, “antero” memories are lost). Anterograde amnesia also may result from a surgical injury (as in the case of H. M. ) or from diseases, such as chronic alcoholism. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Causes of Memory Loss: Alzheimer’s Disease ü Extreme decrease in explicit/declarative memory ü Retain some implicit/nondeclarative memory Upon autopsy, brains have: ü tangles from degenerating cell bodies ü plaques from degenerating axons and dendrites WILEY VIDEO Alzheimer’s Barcode WILEY VIDEO Shrinking Brains (left) Note the large amount of red and yellow color (signs of brain activity) in the positron emission tomography scans of the normal brain. (right) Now compare the reduced activity in the brain of the Alzheimer’s disease patient. The loss is most significant in the temporal and parietal lobes, which indicates that these areas are particularly important for storing memories. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Tips for Memory Improvement WILEY VIDEO Brain Viagra WILEY VIDEO Brain Pills Use metacognition: Thinking about your thinking! ü Pay attention and reduce interference ü Use rehearsal techniques ü Use the encoding specificity principle ü Improve your organization ü Counteract the serial-position effect ü Manage your time ü Employ self-monitoring and overlearning WILEY VIDEO ü Use mnemonics Learning to Forget http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=RH 95 h 36 NCh. I © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

More About Mnemonics! Method of loci Greek and Roman orators developed the method of loci to keep track of the many parts of their long speeches. Orators would imagine the parts of their speeches attached to places in a courtyard. For example, if an opening point in a speech was the concept of justice, they might visualize a courtroom placed in the first corner of their garden. As they mentally walked around their garden during their speech, they would encounter, in order, each of the points to be made. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

More About Mnemonics! Peg words To use the peg-word mnemonic, you first need to memorize a set of 10 images that you can use as “pegs” on which to hang ideas. For example, if you learn 10 items that rhyme with the numbers they stand for, you can then use the images as pegs to hold the items of any list. Try it with items you might want to buy on your next trip to the grocery store: milk, eggs, and bread. http: //www. learner. org/vod_window. html? pid=1588 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

More About Mnemonics! Acronyms To use the acronym method, create a new code word from the first letters of the items you want to remember. For example, to recall the names of the Great Lakes, think of HOMES on a great lake (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Visualizing homes on each lake also helps you remember your code word “homes. ” © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.