Chapter Population Ecology Population an interbreeding group of
![Chapter- Population Ecology Chapter- Population Ecology](https://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-1.jpg)
Chapter- Population Ecology
![Population- an interbreeding group of individuals of a single species that occupy the same Population- an interbreeding group of individuals of a single species that occupy the same](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-2.jpg)
Population- an interbreeding group of individuals of a single species that occupy the same general area Community-the assemblage of interacting populations that inhabit the same area. Ecosystem- comprised of 1 or more communities and the abiotic environment within an area.
![Major Characteristics of a Population • Population dynamics is the study of how populations Major Characteristics of a Population • Population dynamics is the study of how populations](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-3.jpg)
Major Characteristics of a Population • Population dynamics is the study of how populations change in: – Size – ( total # of individuals) – Density ( # individuals in a certain space) – Age distribution ( the proportion of individuals in each age in a population) in response to changes in environmental conditions.
![The characteristics of populations are shaped by the interactions between individuals and their environment The characteristics of populations are shaped by the interactions between individuals and their environment](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-4.jpg)
The characteristics of populations are shaped by the interactions between individuals and their environment • Populations have size and geographical boundaries. – The density of a population is measured as the number of individuals per unit area. – The dispersion of a population is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the geographic boundaries. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![MEASURING DENSITY Density – Number of individuals per unit of area. • Determination of MEASURING DENSITY Density – Number of individuals per unit of area. • Determination of](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-5.jpg)
MEASURING DENSITY Density – Number of individuals per unit of area. • Determination of Density • Counting Individuals • Estimates By Indirect Indicators • Mark-recapture Method N = (Number Marked) X (Catch Second Time) Number Of Marked Recaptures
![• Measuring density of populations is a difficult task. – We can count • Measuring density of populations is a difficult task. – We can count](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-6.jpg)
• Measuring density of populations is a difficult task. – We can count individuals; we can estimate population numbers. Fig. 52. 1 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![PATTERN OF DISPERSION UNIFORM CLUMPED RANDOM PATTERN OF DISPERSION UNIFORM CLUMPED RANDOM](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-7.jpg)
PATTERN OF DISPERSION UNIFORM CLUMPED RANDOM
![• Patterns of dispersion. – Within a population’s geographic range, local densities may • Patterns of dispersion. – Within a population’s geographic range, local densities may](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-8.jpg)
• Patterns of dispersion. – Within a population’s geographic range, local densities may vary considerably. – Different dispersion patterns result within the range. – Overall, dispersion depends on resource distribution. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Clumped Dispersion • Resources a species needs varies greatly place to place • Living Clumped Dispersion • Resources a species needs varies greatly place to place • Living](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-9.jpg)
Clumped Dispersion • Resources a species needs varies greatly place to place • Living in herds/flocks for protection • Hunting packs increases survival of gaining food • Temporary groups for mating Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Uniformed Uniform Dispersion • Species maintain consistent distance between individuals • Access to scarce Uniformed Uniform Dispersion • Species maintain consistent distance between individuals • Access to scarce](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-10.jpg)
Uniformed Uniform Dispersion • Species maintain consistent distance between individuals • Access to scarce sources and less competition
![Random Dispersion • Organisms with random distribution is rare. Even within forest you find Random Dispersion • Organisms with random distribution is rare. Even within forest you find](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-11.jpg)
Random Dispersion • Organisms with random distribution is rare. Even within forest you find clumps of species, or vegetation around light sources, water , or another resource. Fig. 52. 2 c Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Demography is the study of factors that affect the growth and decline of populations Demography is the study of factors that affect the growth and decline of populations](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-12.jpg)
Demography is the study of factors that affect the growth and decline of populations • Additions occur through birth, and subtractions occur through death. – Demography studies the vital statistics that affect population size. • Life tables and survivorship curves. – A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Population Dynamics • Characteristics of Dynamics • Size • Density • Dispersal • Immigration Population Dynamics • Characteristics of Dynamics • Size • Density • Dispersal • Immigration](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-13.jpg)
Population Dynamics • Characteristics of Dynamics • Size • Density • Dispersal • Immigration • Emigration • Births • Deaths • Survivorship
![Parameters that effect size or density of a population: Immigration Birth Population (N) Death Parameters that effect size or density of a population: Immigration Birth Population (N) Death](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-14.jpg)
Parameters that effect size or density of a population: Immigration Birth Population (N) Death Emigration Figure 1. The size of a population is determined by a balance between births, immigration, deaths and emigration
![Age Structure: the proportion of individuals in each age class of a population Figure Age Structure: the proportion of individuals in each age class of a population Figure](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-15.jpg)
Age Structure: the proportion of individuals in each age class of a population Figure 2. Age pyramid. Notice that it is split into two halves for male and female members of the population.
![• The best way to construct life table is to follow a cohort, • The best way to construct life table is to follow a cohort,](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-16.jpg)
• The best way to construct life table is to follow a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age throughout their lifetime. Table 52. 1 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Survivorship Curves Survivorship Curves](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-17.jpg)
Survivorship Curves
![–A graphic way of representing the data is a survivorship curve. • This is –A graphic way of representing the data is a survivorship curve. • This is](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-18.jpg)
–A graphic way of representing the data is a survivorship curve. • This is a plot of the number of individuals in a cohort still alive at each age. –A Type I curve shows a low death rate early in life (humans). –The Type II curve shows constant mortality (squirrels). –Type III curve shows a high death rate early in life (oysters).
![Survivorship Curve Survivorship Curve](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-19.jpg)
Survivorship Curve
![• Reproductive rates. – Demographers that study populations usually ignore males, and focus • Reproductive rates. – Demographers that study populations usually ignore males, and focus](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-20.jpg)
• Reproductive rates. – Demographers that study populations usually ignore males, and focus on females because only females give birth to offspring. – A reproductive table is an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population. • For sexual species, the table tallies the number of female offspring produced by each age group. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Reproductive Table 52. 2 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Reproductive Table 52. 2 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-21.jpg)
Reproductive Table 52. 2 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Life History • The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival Life History • The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-22.jpg)
Life History • The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival make up its life history. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Life histories are very diverse, but they exhibit patterns in their variability • Life Life histories are very diverse, but they exhibit patterns in their variability • Life](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-23.jpg)
Life histories are very diverse, but they exhibit patterns in their variability • Life histories are a result of natural selection, and often parallel environmental factors. • Some organisms, such as the agave plant, exhibit what is known as big-bang reproduction, where large numbers of offspring are produced in each reproduction, after which the individual often dies. • This is also known as semelparity Agaves
![• By contrast, some organisms produce only a few eggs during repeated reproductive • By contrast, some organisms produce only a few eggs during repeated reproductive](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-24.jpg)
• By contrast, some organisms produce only a few eggs during repeated reproductive episodes. – This is also known as iteroparity. • What factors contribute to the evolution of semelparity and iteroparity? Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Limited resources mandate trade-offs between investments in reproduction and survival • The life-histories represent Limited resources mandate trade-offs between investments in reproduction and survival • The life-histories represent](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-25.jpg)
Limited resources mandate trade-offs between investments in reproduction and survival • The life-histories represent an evolutionary resolution of several conflicting demands. – Sometimes we see trade-offs between survival and reproduction when resources are limited. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-26.jpg)
![• For example, red deer show a higher mortality rate in winters following • For example, red deer show a higher mortality rate in winters following](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-27.jpg)
• For example, red deer show a higher mortality rate in winters following reproductive episodes. Fig. 52. 5 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![• Variations also occur in seed crop size in plants. – The number • Variations also occur in seed crop size in plants. – The number](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-28.jpg)
• Variations also occur in seed crop size in plants. – The number of offspring produced at each reproductive episode exhibits a trade-off between number and quality of offspring. dandelion Coconut palm
![The exponential model of population describes an idealized population in an unlimited environment • The exponential model of population describes an idealized population in an unlimited environment •](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-29.jpg)
The exponential model of population describes an idealized population in an unlimited environment • We define a change in population size based on the following verbal equation. Change in population = size during time interval Births during time interval Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings – Deaths during time interval
![• Using mathematical notation we can express this relationship as follows: – If • Using mathematical notation we can express this relationship as follows: – If](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-30.jpg)
• Using mathematical notation we can express this relationship as follows: – If N represents population size, and t represents time, then N is the change is population size and t represents the change in time, then: • N/ t = B-D • Where B is the number of births and D is the number of deaths Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![– We can simplify the equation and use r to represent the difference in – We can simplify the equation and use r to represent the difference in](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-31.jpg)
– We can simplify the equation and use r to represent the difference in per capita birth and death rates. • N/ t = r. N OR d. N/dt = r. N – If B = D then there is zero population growth (ZPG). – Under ideal conditions, a population grows rapidly. • Exponential population growth is said to be happening • Under these conditions, we may assume the maximum growth rate for the population (rmax) to give us the following exponential growth • d. N/dt = rmax. N
![Fig. 52. 9 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52. 9 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-32.jpg)
Fig. 52. 9 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![The logistic model of population growth incorporates the concept of carrying capacity • Typically, The logistic model of population growth incorporates the concept of carrying capacity • Typically,](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-33.jpg)
The logistic model of population growth incorporates the concept of carrying capacity • Typically, unlimited resources are rare. – Population growth is therefore regulated by carrying capacity (K), which is the maximum stable population size a particular environment can support. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Example of Exponential Growth Kruger National Park, South Africa Example of Exponential Growth Kruger National Park, South Africa](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-34.jpg)
Example of Exponential Growth Kruger National Park, South Africa
![POPULATION GROWTH RATE LOGISTIC GROWTH RATE Assumes that the rate of population growth slows POPULATION GROWTH RATE LOGISTIC GROWTH RATE Assumes that the rate of population growth slows](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-35.jpg)
POPULATION GROWTH RATE LOGISTIC GROWTH RATE Assumes that the rate of population growth slows as the population size approaches carrying capacity, leveling to a constant level. S-shaped curve CARRYING CAPACITY The maximum sustainable population a particular environment can support over a long period of time.
![Figure 52. 11 Population growth predicted by the logistic model Figure 52. 11 Population growth predicted by the logistic model](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-36.jpg)
Figure 52. 11 Population growth predicted by the logistic model
![• How well does the logistic model fit the growth of real populations? • How well does the logistic model fit the growth of real populations?](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-37.jpg)
• How well does the logistic model fit the growth of real populations? – The growth of laboratory populations of some animals fits the S-shaped curves fairly well. Stable population Seasonal increase
![– Some of the assumptions built into the logistic model do not apply to – Some of the assumptions built into the logistic model do not apply to](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-38.jpg)
– Some of the assumptions built into the logistic model do not apply to all populations. • It is a model which provides a basis from which we can compare real populations. Severe Environmental Impact
![• The logistic population growth model and life histories. – This model predicts • The logistic population growth model and life histories. – This model predicts](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-39.jpg)
• The logistic population growth model and life histories. – This model predicts different growth rates for different populations, relative to carrying capacity. • Resource availability depends on the situation. • The life history traits that natural selection favors may vary with population density and environmental conditions. • In K-selection, organisms live and reproduce around K, and are sensitive to population density. • In r-selection, organisms exhibit high rates of reproduction and occur in variable environments in which population densities fluctuate well below K. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Species Reproductive Patterns • r-Selected species, opportunists – species with a capacity for a Species Reproductive Patterns • r-Selected species, opportunists – species with a capacity for a](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-40.jpg)
Species Reproductive Patterns • r-Selected species, opportunists – species with a capacity for a high rate of population increase – Many small offspring – Little to no parental care or protection – Reproductive opportunists • K-selected species, competitors – reproduce later in life and have a small number of offspring with fairly long life spans – Few large offspring – High parental care
![](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-41.jpg)
![K-Selected Species • • • Poor colonizers Slow maturity Long-lived Low fecundity (reproductive rate) K-Selected Species • • • Poor colonizers Slow maturity Long-lived Low fecundity (reproductive rate)](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-42.jpg)
K-Selected Species • • • Poor colonizers Slow maturity Long-lived Low fecundity (reproductive rate) High investment in care for the young • Specialist • Good competitors
![r-Selected Species • • • Good colonizers Reach sexual maturity rapidly Short-lived High fecundity r-Selected Species • • • Good colonizers Reach sexual maturity rapidly Short-lived High fecundity](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-43.jpg)
r-Selected Species • • • Good colonizers Reach sexual maturity rapidly Short-lived High fecundity Low investment in care for the young • Generalists • Poor competitors
![](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-44.jpg)
![Positions of r- and K-Selected Species on the S-Shaped Population Growth Curve Positions of r- and K-Selected Species on the S-Shaped Population Growth Curve](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-45.jpg)
Positions of r- and K-Selected Species on the S-Shaped Population Growth Curve
![Transitioning between J and S curves… • Carry capacity isn’t fixed – Varies depending Transitioning between J and S curves… • Carry capacity isn’t fixed – Varies depending](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-46.jpg)
Transitioning between J and S curves… • Carry capacity isn’t fixed – Varies depending on climate and season – Unpredictable changes can be devastating to the species AND the habitat • Reproductive time lag – period needed for the birth rate to fall and the death rate to rise in response to resource overconsumption – May lead to overshoot – Dieback (crash)
![Types of Population Change • S- Stable – population fluctuates slightly above and below Types of Population Change • S- Stable – population fluctuates slightly above and below](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-47.jpg)
Types of Population Change • S- Stable – population fluctuates slightly above and below its carrying capacity – Characteristic of undisturbed rain forests – Late loss curve • R- Irruptive – short-lived rapidly reproducing species – Linked to seasonal changes in weather or nutrient availability – Algal Blooms – Early loss curves
![r-Curve Fluctuations r-Curve Fluctuations](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-48.jpg)
r-Curve Fluctuations
![S-Curve Fluctuations S-Curve Fluctuations](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-49.jpg)
S-Curve Fluctuations
![Types of Population Change • Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles – Top-down population regulation • Types of Population Change • Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles – Top-down population regulation •](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-50.jpg)
Types of Population Change • Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles – Top-down population regulation • Controlled by predation – Bottom-up population regulation • Controlled by scarcity of one or more resources • Irregular – changes in population size with no recurring pattern – chaos
![Introduction • Why do all populations eventually stop growing? • What environmental factors stop Introduction • Why do all populations eventually stop growing? • What environmental factors stop](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-51.jpg)
Introduction • Why do all populations eventually stop growing? • What environmental factors stop a population from growing? • The first step to answering these questions is to examine the effects of increased population density. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Density-Dependent Factors • • • limiting resources (e. g. , food & shelter) production Density-Dependent Factors • • • limiting resources (e. g. , food & shelter) production](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-52.jpg)
Density-Dependent Factors • • • limiting resources (e. g. , food & shelter) production of toxic wastes infectious diseases predation stress emigration
![Density-Independent Factors • • severe storms and flooding sudden unpredictable severe cold spells earthquakes Density-Independent Factors • • severe storms and flooding sudden unpredictable severe cold spells earthquakes](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-53.jpg)
Density-Independent Factors • • severe storms and flooding sudden unpredictable severe cold spells earthquakes and volcanoes catastrophic meteorite impacts
![• Density-dependent factors increase their affect on a population as population density increases. • Density-dependent factors increase their affect on a population as population density increases.](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-54.jpg)
• Density-dependent factors increase their affect on a population as population density increases. – This is a type of negative feedback. • Density-independent factors are unrelated to population density, and there is no feedback to slow population growth. Fig. 52. 13 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Negative feedback prevents unlimited population growth • A variety of factors can cause negative Negative feedback prevents unlimited population growth • A variety of factors can cause negative](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-55.jpg)
Negative feedback prevents unlimited population growth • A variety of factors can cause negative feedback. – Resource limitation in crowded populations can stop population growth by reducing reproduction.
![• Intraspecific competition for food can also cause density-dependent behavior of populations. – • Intraspecific competition for food can also cause density-dependent behavior of populations. –](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-56.jpg)
• Intraspecific competition for food can also cause density-dependent behavior of populations. – Territoriality. – Predation.
![– Waste accumulation is another component that can regulate population size. • In wine, – Waste accumulation is another component that can regulate population size. • In wine,](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-57.jpg)
– Waste accumulation is another component that can regulate population size. • In wine, as yeast populations increase, they make more alcohol during fermentation. • However, yeast can only withstand an alcohol percentage of approximately 13% before they begin to die. – Disease can also regulate population growth, because it spreads more rapidly in dense populations. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
![Population dynamics reflect a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic influences • Carrying capacity Population dynamics reflect a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic influences • Carrying capacity](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image_h/365476f99e957882d2c8b68cc8e2c5b2/image-58.jpg)
Population dynamics reflect a complex interaction of biotic and abiotic influences • Carrying capacity can vary. • Year-to-year data can be helpful in analyzing population growth.
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