Chapter One Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods

Chapter One Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods Frank Hagan

Scientific Research in Criminal Justice and Criminology Scientific Research versus Common Sense

Questions Is social research a science? In your opinion, is criminal justice and/or criminology a social science? If so, explain?

SCIENCE n Science refers to a system which combines rational explanation (theory) with the scientific method. Together, this combination leads to the development of knowledge. n Knowledge is the creation of abstract symbols or ideas (concepts) which seek to explain reality, i. e. , language, theories, and policies. Knowledge changes over time. n The scientific method transforms plausible ideas of reality (theories) into hypotheses. The scientific method employs observation, measurement, replication, and verification (validity).

Questions What is the probabilistic nature of science? and, How does it relate to predictions?

Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry n Objectivity: neutrality n Vigilance: accuracy/error proneness n Empathy: when critiquing others n Interdisciplinary efforts n Methodological Narcissism: substance/method

Theory / Hypothesis n Theory – General statements regarding the relationship between two or more variables. An attempt to classify, explain, predict, and to understand the ‘why and how’ of real events that deal with crime and criminal justice issues. In contrast, methodology attempts to explain ‘what is. ’ n Hypothesis – Specific statements regarding the relationship of two or more variables which are derived from general theories.

Paradigm A model that incorporates theoretical and methodological ideas that give structure and perspective to a particular view of reality. This framework provides a means of analysis. Paradigms tend to shift over time. What is an example of a paradigm shift? Explain.

Methodology A method which involves the collection of accurate facts and data regarding the nature of crime and crime policy. In contrast to theory, methodology attempts to explain the issue of “what is. ” For example, what is the extent of crime?

Pure versus Applied Research Pure research is the acquisition of knowledge for science’s sake. versus Applied research is research concerned with solving or addressing immediate policy problems. What is an example of applied research?

Qualitative versus Quantitative Qualitative or “ethnographic” research tends to sensitize concepts as a basis for fundamental understanding (verstehen). Examples include participant observation, field studies, and interviews. Quantitative or “empirical” research is designed to operationalize and numerically measure variables for statistical analysis.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS n Theory -> Deduction n Hypothesis -> Operationalization n Research Design -> Measurement n Data Gathering -> Analysis n Findings -> Induction n Induction -> Theory

Research Process Terms n Deduction – theory to fact n Induction – fact to theory n Concepts – abstract tags put on reality (or constructs that capture the essence of reality, i. e. , crime, recidivism, intelligence, police patrol, risk on parole, age, sex, race, etc. ) n Operationalization - How concepts will be measured – quantifying a concept to a measurable cause/effect (variable) relationship. A “working” definition.

VARIABLES Variables are human behavior characteristics that vary from individuals or groups of individuals. They take on different numerical values – operationalized concepts. Examples of variables include: age, gender, race, crime, police patrol, and recidivism. From variable categories we can attempt to predict causation and relationships.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE n A variable caused by another – the presumed effect. n Outcome n n “Y” Examples: Crime, recidivism, sentence length, poverty

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE n A variable that influences another variable – the presumed cause. n Predictor – precedes in time the dependent variable. n n “X” Examples: age, race, gender, poverty, type of crime, etc.

Causation and Relationship n Causation: the concept that the action of one phenomenon affects the behavior of another, i. e. , causal effect*: the finding that the change in one variable leads to the change in another variable. n Direction of association: positive (when the independent variable moves in the same direction as the dependent variable); negative (when the independent and dependent variables move in opposite directions); or, no direction (if the independent variable is categorical). n Example of a causal effect: Individuals exposed to media violence are more likely to engage in violent behavior than similar individuals who have not been exposed to media violence.

Example Hypotheses Practical Exercise Determine the independent and dependent variables and the direction of association. n The greater the social disorganization in a community, the higher the rate of crime. n As one’s self-control gets stronger, the fewer delinquent acts one commits. n Crime is lower in those communities where the police patrol on foot.

Forms of Research n The Experiment : Control group and experimental group – based on a random sample. n The Survey: Effects are reported after the fact and focus on attitudes and opinions, i. e. , verbal reports, questionnaires, personal interviews, and telephone interviews. Example: National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). n Content Analysis: Objectively seeks to describe the content of previous messages, i. e. , reenactments via vignettes. n Qualitative analysis: participant observation, i. e. , field studies which include field observation or interviews. n Empirical or Quantitative Analysis: Chi-Square, Regression, Correlations, Longitudinal Studies (NIJs Project of Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods), etc.

General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal Justice n Problem Formulation: theory/hypothesis consideration, feasibility of doing research, literature review, timeliness of policy implications, availability of funding and sponsorships. n Research design – type of approach, i. e. , experimental or non-experimental. n Data Collection: choice of methods, i. e. , observation, questionnaires, interviews, reanalysis of existing data. n Analysis and presentation of findings n Conclusions, interpretations, and limitations

Practical Exercise Study: A society's suicide rate will increase with the level of alienation felt by its members. n Q. What is the independent variable in this study? n Q. What is the direction of the relationship? ("+" for positive, "-" for negative, "0" for not applicable or no direction)