CHAPTER Memory The Nature of Memory Forgetting Biological

Real World Psychology Things you’ll learn in Chapter 7 Q 1 Do video game players have better working-memory skills? Q 2 How can taking a nap improve your memory? Q 3 Why do we remember President Lincoln better than President Truman? Q 4 How might exposure to pornography interfere with memory? Q 5 Could someone falsely convince you as an adult that you committed a serious crime as a teenager? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Basics • Defining memory – Learning that persists over time – Process by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved • Memory as a constructive process – We actively organize and shape information • Memory models – ESR Model – Three-Stage Model © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Models Encoding, Storage and Retrieval (ESR) Model • Our memories go through three basic operations, analogous to a computer – Encoding: getting information into our memories – Storage: retaining information for future use – Retrieval: recovering stored information • Levels of Processing – Necessary to ensure encoding © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Models (continued) Encoding, Storage and Retrieval (ESR) Model PROCESS DIAGRAM

The Nature of Memory Models (continued) Three-Stage Memory Model • Based on passage of information through three stages (sensory, short-term and long-term) • Analogous to a computer in we possess an input, process and output • Each stage varies in purpose, duration and capacity © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Models (continued) Three-Stage Memory Model PROCESS DIAGRAM 7. 2 ©

The Nature of Memory Sensory Memory • Information enters through the five senses • Remains only long enough for relevant pieces to be transferred to the next memory stage • Remaining sensory information degrades to make room for newer stimuli © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Sensory Memory (continued) Echoic (auditory) memory can last for up to 2 to 4 seconds Iconic (visual) memory lasts up to ½ of a second Pictured below is Sperling’s test for iconic memory What did you just ask me? FIGURE 7. 2 a Swing a flashlight in a dark room and you will see the light in a continuous stream. Why? The image lingers on your iconic (visual) memory for a fraction of a second after the flashlight is moved. FIGURE 7. 1 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 2 b

The Nature of Memory Short-Term Memory (STM) • Active processing and temporary storage • Sends and receives information to and from the long-term memory • Limited capacity (5 -9 items) – Can be expanded through chunking (grouping pieces of information together) • Short duration (@ 3 o seconds) – Can be extended through maintenance rehearsal repeat… © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Short-Term Memory (STM) (continued) Chunking Remembering a Telephone Number In Football 8645552497 or 864 -555 -2497 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 3

The Nature of Memory Short-Term Memory (STM) (continued) How Working Memory Might Work ©

Q 1 Do video game players have better workingmemory skills? • Researchers have found that people who play action video games show higher levels of visual, working memory capacity than those who play a control (non-action) video game. (Blacker et al. , 2014) This suggests that certain types of video games may provide mental training exercises that boost particular types of memory. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) • • Stores information for long periods of time Capacity is virtually limitless Duration is relatively permanent Divided into various memory types - Explicit/ declarative • • - Implicit/nondeclarative Semantic Episodic © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. • • • Procedural Classically conditioned Priming

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) Types of Long-Term Memory • Explicit / declarative memory – Conscious, easily described memories – Two sub-types • Semantic memory (facts; general knowledge) – Like a mental encyclopedia or dictionary • Episodic memory (autobiographical events and contexts) – Like a mental diary © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) Types of Long-Term Memory • Implicit / nondeclarative memory – Memory without conscious recall – Three sub-types • Procedural memory (how to do certain things) • Classically conditioned memory (CR’s to CS’s – e. g. phobias) • Priming (retrieval facilitated by earlier exposure) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) FIGURE 7. 5 © 2016 John

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) Improving Your Long-Term Memory • Organization – The use of hierarchies / categories / subsets • Rehearsal – Elaborative rehearsal (deeper processing; focus on understanding, not memorizing) • Retrieval – The use of cues, both specific (to recognize) and general recall) Can you think of some examples of recognition vs. (to recall? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) Improving Your Long-Term Memory • Encoding Specificity – Using the memory in the same context in which it was learned) • Mood Congruence • State-Dependent Retrieval • Mnemonic – Strategy device using familiar during encoding Are there any mnemonic devices that information you have to assist used? recall © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of Memory Long-Term Memory (LTM) (continued) Common Mnemonic Devices a. Method of Loci b. Outline organization Outline 1. Nature of Memory a. Memory Models b. Sensory Memory c. Short-Term Memory (STM) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. c. Acronyms ‘HOMES’… Huron, Ontario…

Q 2 How can taking a nap improve your memory? • Some memory organization and filing is done automatically while you sleep or nap. (Adi-Japha & Karni, 2016; Cona et al. , 2014; Nielsen et al. 2015) • People who rest and close their eyes for as little as 1 o minutes show greater memory for details of a story they’ve just heard. (Dewar et al. , 2012) Despite what you may have heard, you can’t use your sleeping hours to memorize new material, such as a foreign language. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve • Forgetting defined – The inability to remember information that was previously available • Ebbinghaus’s research – Forgetting occurs soon after we learn something – Forgetting then gradually tapers off – Relearning takes less time than Can you the initial learning took remember a time when you forgot something? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve (continued) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting • Theories of why forgetting occurs – Decay – Interference – Motivated forgetting – Encoding failure – Retrieval failure In what ways can forgetting be adaptive? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Decay Theory • “Use it or lose it” – Memory is stored in the form of connections between neurons (physical) – Connections deteriorate over time, especially without use © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Interference Theory • Competing memories – Retroactive interference: new information makes you forget old information – Proactive interference: old information interferes with ability to remember new information © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Retroactive and Proactive Interference FIGURE 7. 9 © 2016

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Motivated Forgetting Theory • Forgetting on purpose – People forget unpleasant or anxietyproducing information either consciously or unconsciously (Freud) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Encoding Failure Theory • The information was never recorded – Sensory information traveled into STM but didn’t get encoded into LTM – Failure to attend to details may result in partial encoding © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) Retrieval Failure Theory • It’s there, but it’s just not available – Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the information has been encoded but temporarily can’t be retrieved – Causes of these problems • Interference • Faulty cues • Emotional arousal © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 7

Forgetting Theories of Forgetting (continued) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting • • • Misinformation effect Serial-position effect Source amnesia Sleeper effect Spacing of practice Culture © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) Misinformation Effect • Results from misleading information being presented after an event – This alters the memories of the event – People tend to remember actions they watch others perform more than actions that they imagine performing themselves Misinformation of his involvement in various wars and current events had catastrophic effects on the career of NBC news anchor Brian Williams in 2015 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) Serial Position Effect • The order in which the information is encountered effects memory – Primacy: information at the beginning of a list is easier to recall – Recency: information at the end of the list (more recent exposure) is easier to recall If an employer is conducting interviews all day, which appointment time do you want? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) The Serial Position Effect FIGURE 7. 10 ©

Q 3 Why do we remember President Lincoln better than President Truman? • Research shows that most people tend to recall presidents from the beginning of history (e. g. , Washington, Adams, Jefferson) and the more recent ones • When we do remember presidents in the middle (like Abraham Lincoln), it’s normally because they are associated with significant events (like Lincoln and the Civil War) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) Source Amnesia • Forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory Spacing of Practice • Distributed practice – Breaking study or practice into several short sessions over time (aka spaced repetition) • Massed practice – Time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (aka cramming) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) Source Amnesia and Negative Political Ads © 2016

Forgetting Factors that Influence Forgetting (continued) Culture • Cultural factors can affect memory and how well people remember what they have learned FIGURE 7. 12 How is information conveyed in your culture? What implications might this have for the strength or weakness of people in this culture in terms of memory? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory Synaptic and Neurotransmitter Changes • Long-term potentiation (LTP) – Repeated stimulation of a synapse strengthens it • Dendrites grow more spines • More synapses and receptor sites develop • The synapse becomes more sensitive – The amount of neurotransmitter released increases • The neuron becomes more efficient in transmitting the message © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 13 How does a sea slug learn and remember? To a large degree, the same way that we do

Biological Bases of Memory Emotional Arousal and Memory • Stress results in the release of epinephrine and cortisol – This stimulates the amygdala, hippocampus and cortex • These chemicals can both enhance and interfere with how we encode, store and retrieve our memories – Prolonged and excessive interfere with memory © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. stress

Q 4 How might exposure to pornography interfere with memory? • Some research suggests that exposure to pornography can disrupt memory - Men were asked to view a series of images (some saw pornographic images, some saw nonpornographic images) - When asked whether they had previously seen an image, the men who saw the nonpornographic images gave 80% correct answers compared to 67% correct answers for the other group. (Laier et a. , 2013) From the text’s discussion on the brain, can you understand why? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory Emotional Arousal and Memory (continued) • Emotional arousal can sometimes lead to memory enhancement – Flashbulb memories • Vivid, detailed and near-permanent memories of emotionally significant memories or events • Can stem from positive or negative experiences © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory Where Memories Are Located What We Used to What We Now Believe • Memory was tends to be localized in a particular many brain area separate areas throughout the brain © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 15

Biological Bases of Memory The Biology of Memory Loss Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) • A main cause of neurological disorders in those 15 -25 • Various causes – Car accidents – Falls – Blows – Gunshot wounds Increased attention is being devoted to the role of severe or repeated blows to the head from participation in both professional and nonprofessional sports to diseases and disorders such as Alzheimer’s, depression and even suicide. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory The Biology of Memory Loss (continued) Amnesia • A generalized difficulty retrieving more widespread and general old memories or forming new ones • Two main types – Retrograde • Difficulty in retrieving old memories (consolidation failure) – Anterograde • Difficulty in forming new memories © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory The Biology of Memory Loss (continued) FIGURE 7. 16 Being completely amnesic about your past and not knowing who you are is a common plot in movies and television. In reality, however, reallife amnesia – while it can create some significant life challenges – doesn’t result in a specific loss of self-identify. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory The Biology of Memory Loss (continued) Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) • A progressive mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in old age • Symptoms – Disturbances in memory – Especially affects explicit/declarative memory, including facts, information, and personal life experiences • Procedural tasks may be retained © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Bases of Memory The Biology of Memory Loss (continued) © 2016 John Wiley

Memory Distortions and Improvement Understanding Memory Distortions • Various reasons why this occurs - Our need for logic and consistency • Can lead to false beliefs - For the sake of efficiency • Can lead to lost specific details that we may need later on Our memories are normally fairly accurate and serve us well in most situations. When faced with tasks that require encoding, storing and retrieving precise details, our brains are not as well-equipped. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement Eyewitness Testimony • Memory errors in the criminal justice system can lead to wrongful judgements of guilt or innocence - Could have life and death consequences • Ways this can occur - Collaboration of witnesses after a crime - Leading questions • • Can create false memories These can multiply over time last for years What color was the telephone in and the room? - Confidence of eyewitnesses, even when wrong © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement Eyewitness Testimony (continued) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Memory Distortions and Improvement Eyewitness Testimony (continued) • Ways to improve the accuracy eyewitness testimony - Take statements at time suspect identification of of - Ask witnesses to make very fast judgements • Allow only a few seconds to ID a culprit in a lineup - Ask people to close their eyes when trying to remember details © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement False vs. Repressed Memories False memories • Can be created rather easily - Can also multiply over time • Like eyewitness testimony, they can have far -reaching personal and legal implications Research using brain scans shows that different areas of the brain are activated during true versus false memories © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement False vs. Repressed Memories False memories A brain scan when both true and false memories are recalled A brain scan when only true memories are recalled © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 7. 20

Q 5 Could someone falsely convince you as an adult that you committed a serious crime as a teenager? Surprised ? So were those research subjects! • It’s relatively easy to create false memories • Innocent adult participants were convinced, over the course of a few hours, that as teenager they had committed serious crimes. (Shaw and Porter, 2015) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement False vs. Repressed Memories Repressed memories • Purposeful forgetting of actual, especially anxiety-inducing events • Believed to operates in both the conscious and unconscious - Conscious: memories are actively forgotten - Unconscious: memories are so painful that they require therapy to unlock (Freud) • Much debate over whether it exists © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement Memory Improvement – Strategies for Student Success ENCODING • Pay attention • Reduce interference • Strive for a deeper level of processing • Counteract the serialposition effect STORAGE • Use chunking • Create hierarchies © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory Distortions and Improvement Memory Improvement – Strategies for Student Success RETRIEVAL • Practice testing • Distributed practice • Remember the encoding specificity principle • Employ self-monitoring • Overlearn © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.