CHAPTER FOUR Research Design Contents Meaning of Research

CHAPTER FOUR Research Design

Contents • Meaning of Research Design • Important Concepts Concerning Research Design • Features of Research Design • Forms of Research Design

Research Design • Research design is a set of advance decisions that make up the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information.

Why Is Research Design Important? • Good research design is the “first rule of good research. ” • Knowledge of the needed research design allows advance planning so that the project may be conducted in less time and typically at a cost savings due to efficiencies gained in preplanning.

Objectives of Research Design • To gain background information and to develop hypotheses. • To measure the state of a variable of interest • To test hypotheses that specify the relationships between two or more variables.

Three Types of Research Designs Explorator y Descriptive Causal

1. Exploratory Research • Exploratory research is usually conducted at the outset/ beginning of research projects. • It is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the problems.

Uses of Exploratory Research • Gain background information • Define terms • Clarify problems and hypothesis • Establish research priorities

Exploratory Research Methods Secondary data analysis: the process of searching for interpreting existing information relevant to the research topic Experience surveys: refer to gathering information from those to be knowledgeable on the issues relevant to the research problem Key-informant technique: gathering information from those thought to be knowledgeable on the issues relevant to the problem Lead-user survey: used to acquire information from lead/ main

Cont…d • Case analysis: a review of available information about a former situation(s) that has some similarities to the current research problem. • Focus groups: small groups brought together and guided by a moderator through an unstructured, spontaneous discussion for the purpose of gaining information relevant to the research problem.

2. Descriptive Research • Descriptive research is undertaken to describe answers to questions of who, what, where, when, and how. • It is desirable when we wish to project a study’s findings to a larger population, if the study’s sample is representative.

Descriptive Research Classifications Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies

Cross-sectional studies • Cross-sectional studies measure units from a sample of the population at only one point in time (or “snapshot”). • Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a way as to be representative of a specific population. • These studies are usually presented with a margin of error.

Longitudinal studies • Longitudinal studies repeatedly measure the sample units of a population over time. • Since they involve multiple measurements over time, they are often described as “movies” of the population.

3. Causal Research Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements of the form “If x, then y. ” Causal relationships are often determined by the use of experiments.

Experiments • An experiment is defined as manipulating an independent variable to see how it affects a dependent variable while also controlling the effects of additional extraneous variables.

Independent Variable • Independent variables are those variables that the researcher has control over and wishes to manipulate—the 4 P’s. • Examples are level of ad expenditure, type of ad appeal, display location, method of compensating salespersons,

Dependent Variables • Dependent variables are those variables that we have little or no direct control over but a strong interest in changing.

Extraneous Variables Extraneous variables are those variables that may have some effect on a dependent variable yet are not independent variables.

Experimental Design • Experimental design is a procedure for devising an experimental setting such that a change in a dependent variable may be attributed solely to the change in an independent variable.

Symbols of Experimental Design • O = measurement, or observation, of a variable • dependent

Pretest and Posttest • Pretest refers to the measurement of the dependent variable taken prior to changing the independent variable. • Posttest refers to measuring the dependent variable after changing the independent variable.

Types of Experimental Design Pre-Experimental Quasi. Experimental True-Experimental

Experimental Design • A “true” experimental design: isolates the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable while controlling for the effects of any extraneous variables. • Quasi-experimental design: ones that do not properly control for the effects of extraneous variables on our dependent variable.

Experimental Design • Before-after with control group design may be achieved by randomly dividing subjects of the experiment in two groups: • Control group: control of extraneous variables typically achieved by the use of a second group of subjects • Experimental group: the group that has been exposed to a change in the independent variable

• How Valid Are Experiments? An experiment is valid if the following are true: • The observed change in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable. • The results of the experiment apply to the “real world” outside the experimental setting. Two forms of validity are used to assess the validity of an experiment: Internal validity is concerned with the extent to which the change in the dependent variable is actually due to the change in the independent variable. External validity refers to the extent that the relationship observed between the independent and dependent variables during the experiment is generalizable to the “real world. ”

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Factors Affecting Internal Validity History effects Maturation effects Testing effects Instrumentation effects Selection bias effects Statistical regression Mortality

Types of Experiments • Laboratory experiments are those in which the independent variable is manipulated and measures of the dependent variable are taken in a contrived, artificial setting for the purpose of controlling the many possible extraneous variables that may affect the dependent variable. • Field experiments are those in which the independent variables are manipulated and the measurements of the dependent variable are made on test units in their natural setting.

Examples on Experimental Designs • Pre-Experimental • Quasi-Experimental • True-Experimental Example on the three experimental designs Question: “Does protein supplementation increase muscle hypertrophy? ”

Pre-Experimental Designs One Shot Study T O 1

Pre-Experimental Designs One Group Pre-test Post-test O T 1 O 2

Pre-Experimental Designs Static/same Group Comparison T P O 1 Oa

Quasi-Experimental Designs Time series O 1 O 2 O 3 T O 4 O 5 O 6

True-Experimental Designs Randomised Group Comparison T O 1 R P O 2

True-Experimental Designs Pre-test Post-test Randomised Group Comparison O RO 1 3 T P O O 4 2

True-Experimental Designs Solomon Four-Group Design O T O P O 1 R O 3 T P O 2 4 5 O 6

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CHAPTER FIVE SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Contents • Sources of data • Advantages and dis advantages of primary and secondary sources • Observation method • Questionnaire • Interviews • Survey

Sources of data • Gathered by the researcher him/her self for the first time Primary sources of data • The sources are individuals and the incidence around them, thus happening to be original • Means: survey , observation and experiment. • They have already gone through statistical process and are Secondary sources of data collected by someone else. • Means, books, manuscripts, records, census reports, magazine, news paper, diaries, letters, magazines.

Personal Interview • A personal interview is a form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents in a face to face situation. • Personal interviews can take place in a factory, cafe homeowner’s doorway, in an executive office or in other settings.

Advantages of Interview • Opportunity for feed back • Probing complex answers • Greater flexibility to restructure questions • Less Item non response • More information in greater detail • Observation method as well can be applied • Supplementary information about the respondent can be obtained • Illiterate and functionally participants can be reached

Disadvantages of Interview • Reluctant to provide confidential information to another person. • Interviewer Bias - the interviewer tone of voice and the interviewer’s appearance may influence the respondents answer. • Costly - Personal interviews are generally more expensive than mail internet and telephone surveys. • Social interest bias may occur • Need for highly trained interviewers • Not all participants are available or accessible

Telephone Interview • Telephone interview- Contacting respondents via telephone to gather responses to survey questions Advantages • Speed - Whereas data collection with mail or personal interviews can take several weeks, hundreds of telephone interviews can be conducted literally over night. • Cost - lower contacts than personal interview and travel time and cost are eliminated • Absence of face to face contact - Reduction of refusal rate and Interviewer bias is reduced • Call backs - An unanswered call, a busy signal or a respondent who is not at home requires a call back. • Better access to hard -to reach participants through repeated call backs • Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible • No field staff is required.

Disadvantages of Telephone Interview • Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases. • Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample is involved. • Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities • It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions. • Problems are difficult to handle

Questionnaire • A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information. • Questionnaire-based surveys are one of the most common tools used by market researchers to establish consumer preferences. . • Bad questionnaires are misleading and likely to yield meaningless data.

Objectives of a Questionnaire There are two main objectives in designing a questionnaire: • To maximize the proportion of subjects answering our questionnaire • To develop the question’s which the respondent can and will answer.

Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire • The researcher must keep in view the problem to study. • The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open ended questions. • Questions should be simple & must be constructed with a view to there forming a logical path. • Rough draft of the questionnaire should be prepared for comment. • Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for a better one. • Pilot study should be undertaken for pre testing the questionnaire. • Questionnaire must contain simple & straight forward direction.

Advantages of self administered Questionnaires • Cost - Often they are the lowest cost option. Mail questionnaires are relatively in expensive compared to personal interviews and telephone surveys. • Geographic coverage - Mail questionnaires can reach a geographically dispersed sample simultaneously and at a low cost. • Allows contact with inaccessible participants. • Time- Respondents have adequate time to give well thought answers. In mail surveys, the participant can take more time to collect facts, talk with others or consider replies. • Interviewer absence - It is free from bias of the interviewer. Answers are in respondents own words. • Requires minimal staff • Incentives may be used to increase response rate

Disadvantages of Self Administered Questionnaires • Low response rates in some modes • Non response error • No interviewer intervention • No feed back • No probing explanation / classification • Misunderstanding /mislead /misperceive • Incomplete answers • Misunderstanding by the interviewer • It can be used only for literate respondents • Mail surveys specially are the slowest method of all.

Guidelines For Questionnaire Construction • What should be asked? • How should each question be phrased? • In what sequence should the questions be arranged? • What questionnaire layout will best serve the research objectives? • How should the questionnaire be pretested?

Observation Method • It is a common method used for data collection primarily used in the fields of behavioral sciences. • It becomes a scientific tool when it becomes a formulated research purpose; . • It is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. We should keep in mind the following points: • What should be observed? • How the observations should be recorded? • How to ensure the accuracy of observations?

Types Of Observation • Structured observation: here the observation is characterized by definition of units to be observed, steps of recording the observed information, standardized conditions to be observed. It is appropriate in descriptive studies. • Unstructured observation: here the observation takes place without taking the specific characteristics into consideration. It is appropriate in exploratory studies. • Participant observation: here the observer observes the situation by making himself the member of the group he is observing. It helps to record the natural behavior of the group.

Cont… • Non-participant observation: here the observer observes as a detached emissary. He does not experience what the respondents feel. • Controlled observation: here the observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plan, involving experimental procedure. It usually takes place in laboratories. • Uncontrolled observation: here the observations take place according to natural settings. The main aim here is to get spontaneous picture of the real life situations. It is resorted to in case of exploratory studies.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation Advantages • If the observation is done accurately, it helps to eliminate subjective bias. • The current information is neither affected by past information’s nor by future intensions. • It is independent of willingness of the respondent to respond and hence it is suitable for the situations when the verbal report of the respondent is not required. Limitations • Expensive method. • We get very limited information. • Since we don’t talk to people hence it may happen that some unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.

Secondary Data • The data that are already available is called Secondary data. • It has already been collected analyzed by someone else. • Secondary data may be published data or unpublished data. • The published data are usually available in books, magazines, reports and publications of various associations, reports prepared by research scholars, economists, universities etc. • The unpublished data may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and also may be available with the research scholars, trade associations and other public / private individuals and organizations.

Expected Qualities from Secondary Sources • Before using secondary data, we must see that they posses the following characters. • Reliability of the data • Suitability - The data that are suitable for one inquiry may not necessary be found suitable in another inquiry. • Adequacy - If the area and scope of the study is narrower than the area of present study the data are considered as inadequate.

Sources of Secondary Data Internal secondary data: All companies or organizations or any other organs keep record of the every course of conducting business or any other activities. • Orders received are filled • Cost are recorded • Sales' people reports are submitted. Such and the like data are some of the many sources of information collected by the company for other purpose and are useful to the researcher

External Sources of Secondary Data: The major sources of external information are: • Government (federal, state, local) • Trade association and trade press • Periodicals • Institution (research, academic) • Commercial services and the like

Secondary Sources The secondary sources of information can be classified into Personal Document: • Biography • Diaries • Letters • Memories Public document: • Company records like number of employees, wage paid, growth rate sale etc. • Census report and statistics: • Journals and magazines • Newspapers: • television, film, radio and public speech

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