Chapter Focus Section 1 State Constitutions Section 2

Chapter Focus Section 1 State Constitutions Section 2 The Three Branches Section 3 State Government Policy Section 4 Financing State Government Chapter Assessment

Chapter Objectives • State Constitutions Explain the importance and functions of state constitutions. • The Three Branches Discuss the organization and functions of the three branches of state governments. • State Government Policy Analyze ways in which state governments write and enforce public policy. • Financing State Government Identify and evaluate various sources of state revenue.

State Constitutions Key Terms initiative, constitutional convention, constitutional commission Find Out • What are the four most important functions of state constitutions? • What are the basic common characteristics of state constitutions?

State Constitutions Understanding Concepts Federalism Why are state constitutions lengthy documents compared to the nation’s Constitution? Section Objective Explain the importance and functions of state constitutions.

California is perhaps the state that is best known for a provision found in many state constitutions—proposing constitutional amendments by popular initiative. During the 1990 s, California voters passed several amendments that stirred public interest across the nation. One notable example was Proposition 209, a popular initiative passed by the voters in 1997 by a margin of 54 to 46 percent. Proposition 209 ended the state’s affirmative action program in education, hiring, and the awarding of government contracts.

I. Importance of Constitutions (pages 637– 638) A. State constitutions create the structure of state governments. B. State constitutions establish local governments, such as counties, townships, municipalities, special districts, parishes, and boroughs. C. State constitutions regulate how state and local governments can raise and spend money. D. State constitutions establish independent state agencies, boards, and commissions.

I. Importance of Constitutions (pages 637– 638) Which do you think should have more power to make decisions about local matters, state government or local government? Answers will vary. Students should understand that local governments are creations of the states.

II. Constitutional Characteristics (page 638) A. All state constitutions have a bill of rights, with most of the protections as in the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the United States, and many states also guarantee other rights. B. Many state constitutions have become long documents as a result of additions made over the years. C. Long state constitutions are filled with detailed, specific provisions, often reflecting special interest politics.

II. Constitutional Characteristics (page 638) Do you think a state constitution should have many or few detailed provisions? Explain. Answers will vary. For discussion of state constitutions see text page 638.

III. Amendments and Changes (pages 639– 640) A. Some state constitutions have a great number of amendments. B. Constitutions of the 50 states provide four different methods of proposing amendments. 1. The most common method of proposing amendments is by the state legislatures. a. Eighteen states also allow the people to propose amendments by popular initiative. b. Some states allow a state constitutional convention to propose amendments. c. Some states use a constitutional commission to propose amendments.

III. Amendments and Changes (pages 639– 640) C. All states except Delaware require ratification of amendments by popular vote; most require a simple majority vote. When voters rather than the legislature vote on an issue, it is called a referendum.

III. Amendments and Changes (pages 639– 640) What provisions would you like to see in your state constitution? Students should address issues or conditions that have lasting significance.

IV. Criticism and Reform (page 640) A. Over the years, critics have charged that state constitutions are too long and filled with needless detail. B. In order to replace existing state constitutions, most states require a constitutional convention. C. In most states, the legislature proposes the convention, which the voters must approve, and then voters, in a new election, choose delegates to write a new document or propose changes to the existing constitution. During the 1980 s, more state judges began to interpret state constitutions independently of the Constitution of the United States.

IV. Criticism and Reform (page 640) Do you think state judges should interpret state constitutions independently of the United States Constitution? Explain. Students should be aware that judicial review at the state level must not violate the national constitution.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to identify the purposes served by state constitutions. create structure of state government, establish types of local government, regulate how state and local governments spend money, establish state bureaucracy

Checking for Understanding 2. Define initiative, constitutional convention, constitutional commission. An initiative is a method by which citizens propose a constitutional amendment or a law. A constitutional convention is a gathering of citizens elected to consider changing or replacing a constitution. A constitutional commission is a group of experts appointed to study a state constitution and recommend changes.

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify state constitution. A state constitution creates and outlines the structure of state government.

Checking for Understanding 4. In what ways are most state constitutions alike? They separate power into three branches, have a bill of rights, and include much specific detail.

Checking for Understanding 5. Why are state constitutions amended more frequently than the federal Constitution? Because state constitutions are more detailed and deal with more immediate and specific concerns, they go out of date more quickly, requiring further amendments.

Critical Thinking 6. Identifying Central Issues Why do you think so many amendments to state constitutions have been adopted, when the people have been reluctant to approve of constitutional conventions for reform? Students might suggest that people may fear major changes that would come with a new constitution, preferring to revise the old one.

Federalism Many state constitutions contain historic provisions that are no longer applicable, such as a tax to help veterans of the Civil War. Examine your state constitution. Identify provisions in the constitution that may no longer be applicable. Do you think that states should take the time to eliminate these provisions? Why?

The Three Branches Key Terms bicameral, lieutenant governor, plurality, item veto, civil case, criminal case Find Out • How do state legislatures and governors work together to pass laws and carry out policies that affect citizens of a state? • How do states differ in their methods of selecting qualified people to serve as judges?

The Three Branches Understanding Concepts Separation of Powers How does the principle of separation of powers in state government compare with that of the federal government? Section Objective Discuss the organization and functions of the three branches of state governments.

Seven sitting governors have been elected president: Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), Grover Cleveland (Ohio), William Mc. Kinley (Ohio), Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey), Franklin Roosevelt (New York), Bill Clinton (Arkansas), and George W. Bush (Texas).

I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641– 642) A. The state legislature passes laws. B. Members of state legislatures are elected from legislative districts. Qualifications for members are outlined in state constitutions. C. Many state legislators work part-time in other fields. D. Most state legislatures: 1) are bicameral, 2) hold annual sessions, and 3) conduct business through committees.

I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641– 642) E. Many bills originate in the executive branch of state government. F. A bill begins in either house of the state legislature and is debated and voted on. The governor vetoes or signs passed bills.

I. The Legislative Branch (pages 641– 642) If you had the power to do so, how might you adjust the qualifications for members of your state legislature? Answers will vary. Students should know the qualifications for their own state.

II. The Executive Branch (pages 643– 645) A. The governor heads the executive branch of the state government. B. State constitutions outline qualifications of the governor. C. A governor generally must be nominated by a major political party and win the general election. D. Most governors serve four-year terms. In 18 states, governors and other officials can be removed from office by a recall.

II. The Executive Branch (pages 643– 645) E. The governor proposes and signs laws, represents the state to foreign businesses, is his or her party’s state leader, and works to obtain federal grants. F. Most governors prepare the state budget and are commander in chief of the state National Guard. G. Since 1965, most states have given governors greater executive power.

II. The Executive Branch (pages 643– 645) H. Governors 1) supervise the executive branch of the state government, 2) propose legislation, 3) veto bills, 4) call special sessions of the state legislature, and 5) have limited power over the state court system. I. Most states elect other members of the executive branch.

II. The Executive Branch (pages 643– 645) In which role does the governor of your state perform best? Explain. Answers will vary. Roles include executive, legislator, party leader, state spokesperson.

III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646– 647) A. State courts interpret and apply state and local laws to civil and criminal cases. B. The justice court performs marriages and handles minor civil and criminal cases. C. Municipal courts, police courts, or magistrate courts handle cases of petty crime or property disputes. Other minor courts include small claims court, juvenile court, domestic relations court, traffic court, and probate court.

III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646– 647) D. State general trial courts hear cases involving serious crimes. E. State appeals courts review cases of lower courts. F. A state supreme court is the court of final appeal. G. Judges may be removed from office.

III. The Judicial Branch (pages 646– 647) What do you think is a good reason to remove a judge from office? Why? Answers will vary. See Removal of Judges on text page 647.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show the roles of president and governor differ in at least two ways. Answers might include: president—makes foreign policy, does not have line-item veto; governor—does not make foreign policy, has line-item veto

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ F bicameral ___ C lieutenant governor ___ E plurality ___ B item veto ___ D civil case ___ A criminal case A. when the state brings charges against a citizen for violating the law B. the power to turn down particular items in a bill without vetoing the entire bill C. the presiding officer of the upper house in some state legislatures D. usually involves a dispute between two or more private individuals or organizations E. the largest number of votes in an election F. two-house legislative body

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify National Guard, attorney general, secretary of state, Missouri Plan. The National Guard is a state militia that serves under the governor’s control. The attorney general supervises the legal activities of all state agencies, gives legal advice to the governor, and acts as a lawyer for the state in cases in which it is involved. The secretary of state is the chief secretary or clerk of state government. The Missouri Plan is a selection process for judges that combines appointment by the governor and popular election.

Checking for Understanding 4. Why do some people question the wisdom of electing state court judges? They question whether people are informed enough to elect judges, and they fear political influences upon judges who are elected.

Critical Thinking 5. Making Comparisons How is the path a bill takes to become a law similar in a state legislature and the national Congress? The bill is introduced by legislators, sent to a committee, reported back to the house, passed by both houses, and signed by the chief executive. A conference committee may resolve differences and the legislature may pass a bill over an executive veto by a two-thirds majority vote in both houses.

Separation of Powers Look through local newspapers and find articles about the governor of your state. For each article, describe what role or roles your governor is playing. Attach your article and role description on a class bulletin-board display titled “The Roles of the Governor. ”

State Government Policy Key Terms corporate charter, public utility, workers’ compensation, unemployment compensation, conservation, mandatory sentencing, victim compensation, extradition, parole, shock probation, shock incarceration, house arrest Find Out • What are four major objectives of state economic policy? • Why does each state have its own criminal laws?

State Government Policy Understanding Concepts Public Policy What are the major areas in which states write and enforce public policy? Section Objective Analyze ways in which state governments write and enforce public policy.

The natural ability of each state to deal with individual issues that affect it was foreseen by the Founders. As described by Justice Louis D. Brandeis in a dissenting opinion of New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann (1932): “It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single, courageous State may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory, and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country. ”

I. State Regulation of Business (pages 648– 650) A. Business corporations must have a charter issued by a state government. B. Federal and state governments regulate giant corporations. C. States have laws to protect consumers from unfair practices and to protect the health and safety of workers. D. State governments provide workers’ compensation. E. Workers in all states have the right to belong to labor unions. F. State governments try to attract new business and industry.

I. State Regulation of Business (pages 648– 650) If you were governor of your state, what kinds of industry would you attempt to attract to your state? Why? Answers will vary. Students should support their suggestions with logical reasons.

II. States and the Environment (pages 650– 651) A. States’ concerns for economic growth sometimes clash with public concern for the environment. B. In 1989 Congress strengthened the states’ power to protect the environment. C. State governments have begun to monitor the environmental impact of major projects.

II. States and the Environment (pages 650– 651) How would you alter state regulations to control pollution? Answers will vary. See Costs of Pollution Control on text page 651.

III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651– 653) A. State and local governments are responsible for protecting life and property, and for establishing a criminal code and a system of punishment. B. State police forces have investigative powers in many states, but they have broad responsibilities in a few states. C. State courts handle the majority of all criminal cases in the United States. D. In strained state justice systems, many states are giving judges more sentencing options.

III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651– 653)

III. Protecting Life and Property (pages 651– 653) Do you agree or disagree with mandatory sentencing for drug-related crimes? Explain. Answers will vary. See State Criminal Laws on text page 651.

IV. Providing for Education, Health, and Welfare (pages 653– 654) A. State governments provide about 45 percent of revenues for local public schools. B. State spending for education generally has increased. C. The state licenses doctors and dentists, regulates the sale of medicines, and requires vaccinations for schoolchildren. D. State agencies provide programs of public welfare, health and human services.

IV. Providing for Education, Health, and Welfare (pages 653– 654) E. With federal assistance, states help people with special needs. F. With Medicaid assistance, states help lowincome people pay medical bills.

IV. Providing for Education, Health, and Welfare (pages 653– 654) What services do you think state government should offer that it does not? Answers will vary. Have students suggest sources of revenue to pay for additional services.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Use chart to show the four major policy areas in which state governments enact legislation and an example of each. business regulation: utilities, consumer protection; environment: clean air and water; crime: police and corrections; health, education and welfare: school funding, AFDC

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ B corporate charter ___ E conservation A. program designed to show young offenders how terrible prison life is through brief incarceration followed by supervised release ___ C extradition B. a document that gives a corporation legal status ___ A shock probation C. the legal procedures through which a person accused of a crime who has fled to another state is returned to the state where the crime took place ___ D house arrest D. a sentence which requires an offender to stay at home except for certain functions the court permits E. the care and protection of natural resources

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify industrial development bonds, Medicaid. Industrial development bonds are bonds sold by state governments to help finance industries that have relocated or expanded within the state. Medicaid is a federal-state welfare program that provides money to the states to help people who cannot afford necessary medical services.

Checking for Understanding 4. Why is a decentralized system of justice an advantage in the United States? Different crime rates and living conditions call for criminal laws specifically designed for each state.

Critical Thinking 5. Expressing Problems Clearly What factors must a state legislature weigh when considering taxing or regulating large business corporations? States must consider the effect of taxation and regulation upon business and the possibility that the state might not be attractive to business if business taxes are too heavy or business regulation too severe.

Public Policy Each state writes and enforces its own policies in areas such as education, the environment, housing, and welfare. Create a poster that illustrates serious problems related to one of these areas. Share your chart and analyze possible policy solutions.

Financing State Government Key Terms excise tax, regressive tax, progressive tax, proportional tax, bond, intergovernmental revenue, federal grant, block grant, mandate Find Out • What are the major sources of state tax revenue? • Under what kinds of programs does the federal government provide aid to states?

Financing State Government Understanding Concepts Public Policy How does state tax policy attempt to distribute the burden of taxes among different people and groups? Section Objective Identify and evaluate various sources of state revenue.

States today raise large amounts of revenue from state lotteries. Millions of residents buy lottery tickets each day, hoping to win the lottery jackpots. The largest prize ever won was $363 million, in a 2000 multistate lottery called The Big Game. Both winners chose to receive cash payments of about $90 million as their share of the jackpot. Of course, even though they had beaten huge odds they still had to pay income tax to both the state and federal governments.

I. Tax Revenue (pages 656– 657) A. Individual state constitutions limit state taxing powers, as does the Constitution of the United States. B. Today, most state governments have some type of sales tax, which accounts for about half of the total tax revenue of state governments. C. Most states now also have individual income taxes and corporate income taxes, which account for more than 30 percent of all state tax revenues.

I. Tax Revenue (pages 656– 657) D. States require license fees for various businesses and professions, as well as for operating motor vehicles. E. States impose taxes for removing natural resources from state land or water. Many states also have less well-known taxes, such as a state property tax, estate taxes, and inheritance taxes.

I. Tax Revenue (pages 656– 657) Which state taxes do you believe are the fairest for all citizens? Which are the most unfair? Explain. Answers will vary. Students should understand the principles of progressive and regressive taxation.

II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657– 658) A. Since taxes finance only a part of state government expenses, states turn to borrowing, lotteries, and the federal government. B. States borrow money by selling bonds to pay for large, long-term expenditures such as highway construction. C. Nearly three-fourths of the states run public lotteries to raise revenue. Lotteries became the fastest-growing source of state revenues in the 1980 s.

II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657– 658) D. The federal government provides about 20 percent of all state revenues, much in the form of grants-in-aid, and stipulates how the grants may be used. Categorical-formula grants go to states on different bases, depending on the state’s wealth. E. During the 1980 s and 1990 s, the federal government’s share of state and local government revenues declined, but unfunded, federally-mandated programs increased until Congress passed the Unfunded Mandate Reform Act (UMRA) to curb unfunded mandates in 1995.

II. Other Sources of Revenue (pages 657– 658) Some critics claim that state lotteries encourage gambling and that many people who buy lottery tickets can least afford such spending. Do you agree or disagree? Explain. Answers will vary. The lottery is a regressive tax. That it encourages gambling is debated.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show why state officials prefer block grants as a form of federal aid. Cause: funds come with fewer guidelines

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ E excise tax ___ D regressive tax A. a formal order given by a higher authority B. a sum of money given to a state for a specific purpose ___ F progressive tax C. a contractual promise by a borrower to repay a certain sum plus interest by a specified date ___ C bond D. tax in which people with lower incomes pay a larger portion of their incomes ___ B federal grant ___ A mandate E. tax on the manufacture, transportation, consumption, or sale of certain items such as gasoline, liquor, or cigarettes F. tax based on a person’s ability to pay

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify categorical-formula grant. Categorical-formula grants are federal funds that go to all states on the basis of a formula (usually based on the state’s wealth).

Checking for Understanding 4. What are the two main categories of state tax revenue? Two main categories of state tax revenue are sales tax and income tax.

Critical Thinking 5. Understanding Cause and Effect How does Congress influence state policies through its distribution of federal grants? by stipulating programs and goals that the federal government believes are necessary and by setting certain minimum standards in the states

Public Policy Contact your state offices or use library reference materials to find out the major areas of your state’s spending and the major sources of your state’s revenue. Summarize your information and present the data in two circle graphs.

Reviewing Key Terms Match the term with the correct definition. A. B. C. D. E. public utility mandate criminal case initiative civil case F. item veto G. regressive tax H. intergovernmental revenue I. bicameral J. workers’ compensation ___ G tax in which people with lower incomes pay a larger portion of their incomes ___ I two-house legislative body ___ C one in which state brings charges against a citizen for violating the law ___ H revenue distributed by one level of government to another ___ A an organization that supplies such necessities as electricity, gas, or telephone service

Reviewing Key Terms Match the term with the correct definition. A. B. C. D. E. public utility mandate criminal case initiative civil case F. item veto G. regressive tax H. intergovernmental revenue I. bicameral J. workers’ compensation ___ E one usually involving a dispute between two or more private individuals or organizations ___ B a formal order given by a higher authority ___ D a method by which citizens propose a constitutional amendment or a law ___ J payments people unable to work as a result of jobrelated injury or ill health receive ___ F the power to turn down a particular item in a bill without vetoing the entire bill

Recalling Facts 1. What is the method most states use to ratify an amendment to a state constitution? Most states use a popular vote to ratify an amendment to a state constitution. 2. What are the political qualifications that a person must meet to become governor? A candidate should have experience serving in state and local government and should possess a knowledge of law.

Recalling Facts 3. What are four methods that states use to appoint state judges? States use popular election, election by state legislatures, appointment by the governor, and the Missouri Plan to appoint state judges. 4. How do states regulate public utilities? All states regulate the rates that public utility companies may charge customers in return for granting the company the right to supply service in the state or part of the state.

Recalling Facts 5. In what three ways do federal grants influence the states? Federal grants supply funds for programs that states otherwise might not be able to afford; they stimulate programs and goals that the federal government believes are necessary; they set certain minimum standards in the states.

Understanding Concepts 1. Federalism In the federal system, how is sovereign power divided among state and federal laws and constitutions? State laws must be consistent with the state constitution, just as federal laws must agree with the United States Constitution. A state constitution cannot contain provisions that clash with the Constitution of the United States, nor can a state law.

Understanding Concepts 2. Separation of Powers What legislative policymaking role is a governor expected to fill? A governor is to direct important legislation (propose and sign legislation) and to identify state needs.

Critical Thinking 1. Making Comparisons How do state constitutions compare in length and detail to the United States Constitution? In general, state constitutions are longer and contain much more specific detail than does the United States Constitution.

Critical Thinking 2. Understanding Cause and Effect Use a graphic organizer like the one below to show why spending for education differs among local districts. Cause: each local district has a different tax base that determines its ability to support education

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 1. What is the subject of this cartoon? state funding of education and schools

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 2. As depicted here, how are state funds allocated to schools? In the situation depicted in the cartoon, students pay a meter to receive academic instruction. Students decide how much education they will receive by how much money they deposit in the meter.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 3. How does the cartoonist feel about the current funding system? Possible answer: Differences in the total amount of spending per pupil exist among the states and among localities within states. Differences in spending on education between rich and poor school districts have become vast in some states. Many state courts have claimed such differences are unconstitutional. The cartoonist jokes about the capability of some students to pay for their education.

Why do state governments hold the right to issue occupational and professional licenses? Licenses are a form of consumer protection, helping to ensure that people working in various professions have the appropriate qualifications for doing so.

1) No; there are many different types of local government which vary by state and the size of the individual communities. 2) No; the United States Constitution is supreme over state constitutions 3) No; even though all states provide for three branches

1) the voters 2) Voters elect state attorneys general; the president of the United States appoints the U. S. Attorney General 3) Decisions may be made to please the governor rather than the voters.

1) Mississippi and Arkansas 2) Answers will vary. 3) Possible answers may include geographical location, urban centers, and population

1) Intergovernmental and sales taxes 3) Answers will vary. 2) education and public welfare

Creating Headlines Trace and summarize the key points of the topics discussed in this chapter by writing imaginary newspaper headlines. Write a few headlines that suggest (1) how your state government is organized and run, (2) how your state officials administer their responsibilities, or (3) how your state government attempts to meet the needs and solve the problems of its citizens. Finally, write a few headlines that suggest the role that the state constitution plays in citizens’ daily lives. Use the headlines as an outline for chapter review.

Understanding State Principles In Democracy in America, French political writer Alexis de Tocqueville (1805– 1859) noted: “The great political principles which now rule American society were born and grew up in the state. . So one must understand the state to gain the key to the rest. ” Respond to this view.

State-Supported Education The philosophical basis for state-supported education comes from the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which called for land in each new state to be set aside for public schools. “Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, ” the Ordinance read, “schools as the means for education shall be forever encouraged. ”

Term Limits Candidates for Governor A Governor’s Record

Despite the traditional argument that legislatures benefit from having their members serve short terms and then return to their vocations, the increasing complexity of issues and the demands for legislation have strengthened a trend to full-time or professional state legislators.

A candidate for governor should wield influence in a major political party, but needs more than the power of the state’s party “machine” to win the election. Most successful candidates for governor also must have a broad political base—that is, wide popularity among and support from certain groups and sections of the state. In an agricultural state, for example, support from farmers would be a vital part of a candidate’s political base.

A governor’s record can be a great credential for presidential candidates—but it also can be a hindrance. In 1976, for example, Georgia governor Jimmy Carter parlayed his state’s economic renaissance into a successful bid for the presidency. In 1988, George Bush blamed his opponent, Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis, for the state’s high taxes and environmental problems—a tactic that helped Bush defeat Dukakis in the election.

People who are convicted of multiple crimes may be required to serve the sentence for each crime consecutively, or the judge may allow them to serve their sentences concurrently. If a gun is used in a crime, however, many states require a mandatory additional sentence, to be added to the end of the sentence for the crime itself.

More About Licenses The origin of the word license provides an easy-to-remember definition. License comes from the Latin lic, “to be permitted, ” and a license grants authority to do something that otherwise would not be permitted.

Extradition Environment

Extradition comes from a Latin term meaning “the act of handing over. ” The same Latin term—traditio —also serves as the basis for the words traitor and treason.

Environment is used so often that the implications of its meaning may not be apparent. Literally, environment refers to the concrete conditions by which one is surrounded. Discuss the connotation that one is “fenced in” by a physical environment— and the fact that pollution of the environment poses a danger that cannot easily be escaped.

The D. C. Dilemma Washington, D. C. , is neither a state nor a city—it is a federal district under the control of Congress. The local government has a mayor and a city council, but Washington, D. C. , is also represented in Congress by a delegate to the House of Representatives, although this person has no vote. Before 1961, residents of D. C. were not allowed to vote in presidential elections. A petition proposing that the district be admitted to the Union as the 51 st state was filed in Congress on September 9, 1983. Today, some groups are continuing this drive for statehood.

Conflict of Interest Consider the ethical issues involved in having bills proposed by legislators who are also full-time professionals in areas such as insurance or real estate. What are some conflicts of interest that might develop? Informally debate methods of preventing corruption in lawmaking based on this situation.

Court Observers For the sake of judicial discipline, several states have volunteer court observers report on various aspects of daily courtroom activity. Find out how a citizen can become a court observer.

Technology Although the National Guard is not a federal force, its units have access to the latest in military technology. For example, members of the National Guard may be trained to operate M-1 tanks, F-16 fighters, C-130 transports, Blackhawk helicopters, and so on.

Elizabeth Wright-Ingraham In 1995 the American Institute of Architects (AIA) honored Wright-Ingraham with a fellowship, recognizing the fact that she has “made significant contributions to the aesthetic, scientific, and practical efficiency of the profession; to the standards of architectural education, training, and practice; to the building industry through leadership of the AIA and other related professional organizations; [and] to the advancement of the living standards of people through their improved environment and to society through significant public service. ” Activity: If you held a position of influence in this state, how might you use your “pull” to improve some aspect of life in the state?

Minority Governors The first female governor of a state was Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming, elected in 1924 to fill her deceased husband’s unexpired term. The first woman to hold a state governorship without being preceded by her husband was Ella Grasso, who served as governor of Connecticut from 1975 to 1980. Virginia’s Douglas Wilder, elected in 1989, was the nation’s first African American elected governor.

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