Chapter Focus Section 1 Constitutional Powers Section 2

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Chapter Focus Section 1 Constitutional Powers Section 2 Investigations and Oversight Section 3 Congress

Chapter Focus Section 1 Constitutional Powers Section 2 Investigations and Oversight Section 3 Congress and the President Chapter Assessment

Chapter Objectives • Constitutional Powers Identify and explain classifications of powers through which Congress

Chapter Objectives • Constitutional Powers Identify and explain classifications of powers through which Congress makes laws for the nation. • Investigations and Oversight Discuss occasions in which Congress has exercised its power to conduct investigations and practice legislative oversight. • Congress and the President Analyze the dynamics in the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government.

Constitutional Powers Key Terms expressed powers, necessary and proper clause, implied powers, revenue bill,

Constitutional Powers Key Terms expressed powers, necessary and proper clause, implied powers, revenue bill, appropriations bill, interstate commerce, impeachment Find Out • Why are the money powers granted to Congress by the Founders so important? • How has the commerce clause enabled Congress to apply a loose interpretation to the Constitution?

Constitutional Powers Understanding Concepts Constitutional Interpretation On what types of issues did the Founders

Constitutional Powers Understanding Concepts Constitutional Interpretation On what types of issues did the Founders restrict congressional actions with the addition of the Bill of Rights? Section Objective Identify and explain classifications of powers through which Congress makes laws for the nation.

Congress sometimes exercises more than one of its powers at the same time. In

Congress sometimes exercises more than one of its powers at the same time. In 1993 after several months of heated debate, the Senate approved the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This treaty with Canada and Mexico ended trade barriers between those nations and the United States. In approving NAFTA, the Senate was carrying out its treaty power in foreign affairs as well as its power to regulate foreign commerce.

I. Constitutional Provisions (pages 157– 158) A. The “necessary and proper” clause of the

I. Constitutional Provisions (pages 157– 158) A. The “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution enables Congress to expand its power. B. Conflicting interpretations of the elastic clause are reflected in Supreme Court rulings on the power of Congress. C. The powers of Congress are limited by the Bill of Rights and the Constitution.

I. Constitutional Provisions (pages 157– 158) Do you agree with those who believe in

I. Constitutional Provisions (pages 157– 158) Do you agree with those who believe in a strict construction of the Constitution or with those who support a loose construction? Explain. Answers will vary. Students should demonstrate an understanding of strict and loose construction.

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) A. The power to levy taxes and appropriate

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) A. The power to levy taxes and appropriate money is one of Congress’s most important powers. B. Congress has the power to borrow money, to coin money, and to make laws regarding bankruptcy. C. Congress has the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) D. Congress has important powers in foreign policy

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) D. Congress has important powers in foreign policy and national defense, such as the power to approve treaties, to declare war, and to create and maintain an army and a navy. E. Congress has power over naturalization of citizens and the admission of new states to the Union. F. Congress has the power to grant copyrights and patents and the power to establish federal courts and a post office.

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163)

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163)

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) Explain how Congress has used its taxing and

II. Legislative Powers (pages 158– 163) Explain how Congress has used its taxing and spending power to expand its authority. Taxing and spending powers are used to expand regulatory authority; regulatory powers help control the economy.

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) A. If no presidential candidate has a majority

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) A. If no presidential candidate has a majority of the electoral votes, the House of Representatives chooses the president from the top three candidates; if no vice presidential candidate has an electoral vote majority, the Senate chooses the vice president from the top two candidates. B. Congress has the power to settle problems arising from the death of candidates or the president’s incapacity or resignation. C. Congress has the power to remove officials of the executive or judicial branches from office by the process of impeachment.

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) D. The Senate has the power to approve

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) D. The Senate has the power to approve officials appointed by the president. E. The Senate ratifies treaties between the United States and other nations. F. Congress shares with state legislatures the power to propose and ratify constitutional amendments.

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) Do you think Congress might sometimes abuse its

III. Nonlegislative Powers (pages 163– 165) Do you think Congress might sometimes abuse its power to impeach high officials? Explain. Answers will vary. Congress has only rarely used this power.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea In a chart like the one below, list

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea In a chart like the one below, list two or more examples of powers the Constitution expresses, implies, and denies to Congress. Examples might include: Expressed: levying taxes; declaring war; regulating commerce; coining money; granting copyrights and patents. Implied: supporting public schools; maintaining the Federal Reserve Board; drafting people into the armed services; limiting immigration. Denied: suspending writ of habeas corpus; passing bills of attainder; passing ex post facto laws.

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ F revenue bill

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ F revenue bill ___ C impeachment ___ A appropriation bill A. a proposed law to authorize spending money B. powers directly stated in the Constitution ___ E interstate commerce C. a formal accusation of misconduct in office against a public official ___ B expressed powers ___ D implied powers D. powers the government requires to carry out the expressed constitutional powers E. trade among the states F. a law proposed to raise money

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Twentieth Amendment, Twenty-fifth Amendment. The Twentieth and Twenty-Fifth Amendment

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Twentieth Amendment, Twenty-fifth Amendment. The Twentieth and Twenty-Fifth Amendment give Congress the power to settle problems arising from the death of elected candidates and from presidential incapacity or resignation.

Checking for Understanding 4. State the foreign policy powers of Congress. The foreign policy

Checking for Understanding 4. State the foreign policy powers of Congress. The foreign policy powers of Congress include the power to approve treaties, to declare war, to create and maintain an army and navy, to make rules governing land naval forces, and to regulate foreign commerce.

Checking for Understanding 5. Describe the process by which Congress may remove a member

Checking for Understanding 5. Describe the process by which Congress may remove a member of the executive or judicial branch from office. By majority vote the House impeaches, or charges an official with wrongdoing. The Senate can convict by a two-thirds majority.

Critical Thinking 6. Drawing Conclusions Do you think Gibbons v. Ogden provided a basis

Critical Thinking 6. Drawing Conclusions Do you think Gibbons v. Ogden provided a basis for the Supreme Court’s position in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States that a hotel is a part of interstate commerce? Explain. Possible answer: Yes; when the Court decided that people were interstate commerce in the Gibbons case, it established a basis for ruling that a hotel serving interstate travelers was engaging in interstate commerce.

Constitutional Interpretations Research legislation that Congress passed in a recent session. Identify any bills

Constitutional Interpretations Research legislation that Congress passed in a recent session. Identify any bills you believe were based on the power to regulate interstate commerce. Draw a political cartoon supporting or criticizing the legislation.

Investigations and Oversight Key Terms subpoena, perjury, contempt, immunity, legislative veto Find Out •

Investigations and Oversight Key Terms subpoena, perjury, contempt, immunity, legislative veto Find Out • In what ways are a witness’s rights in a congressional investigation similar to and different from a witness’s rights in a court? • By what methods does Congress exercise its power of legislative oversight?

Investigations and Oversight Understanding Concepts Checks and Balances How does the power of Congress

Investigations and Oversight Understanding Concepts Checks and Balances How does the power of Congress to oversee the carrying out of laws serve as a check on the executive branch? Section Objective Discuss times when Congress used its power to conduct investigations and practice legislative oversight.

Both houses of Congress sometimes investigate the same thing at the same time. The

Both houses of Congress sometimes investigate the same thing at the same time. The Senate Governmental Affairs Committee held hearings for several months in 1997 to investigate President Clinton’s campaign finances in the 1996 election. At the same time, the House Government Oversight Committee conducted its own investigation into fund-raising by the president and the Democratic National Committee in that same election.

I. The Power to Investigate (pages 167– 169) A. Standing committees or select committees

I. The Power to Investigate (pages 167– 169) A. Standing committees or select committees of Congress investigate the conduct and ethics of government officials and members of Congress. B. Investigations have a variety of consequences that range from proposing new legislation to removing officials from office. C. Congressional investigations collect evidence, subpoena witnesses, and grant witnesses immunity, but they are not trials.

I. The Power to Investigate (pages 167– 169) The Fifth Amendment protects individuals from

I. The Power to Investigate (pages 167– 169) The Fifth Amendment protects individuals from being forced to testify against themselves. Yet Congress may grant witnesses immunity, in order to obtain testimony. Do you agree or disagree with this practice by Congress? Explain. Answers will vary. For discussion of this issue see text pages 168– 169.

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) A. Congress uses the power of legislative oversight

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) A. Congress uses the power of legislative oversight to weigh how well the executive branch carries out the laws enacted by Congress. B. The Legislative Reorganization Acts of 1946 and 1970 require Congress to review and study, on a continuing basis, how the laws under its responsibility are administered, applied, and executed. C. Realistically, however, Congress cannot effectively monitor every action of the executive branch; it does not have enough staff, time, or money to do so.

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) D. Congress uses its legislative oversight to require

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) D. Congress uses its legislative oversight to require executive agencies to submit reports on their activities, to review those agencies’ budgets, and to direct the GAO and Congress’s other support agencies to monitor the executive agencies’ finances. E. When Congress suspects wrongdoing, special investigations or even the threat of such investigations act as a strong deterrent to defying the intent of Congress.

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) Why do you think Congress carries out its

II. Legislative Oversight (pages 169– 171) Why do you think Congress carries out its legislative oversight in an inconsistent way? Lack of time and resources, low priority, vague laws, and cooperation with federal agencies. See text page 170.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one shown,

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one shown, identify the steps Congress can take if a witness at a congressional investigation cites Fifth Amendment protection and refuses to testify. 1. Grant the witness immunity from prosecution. 2. Hold the witness in contempt.

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ B subpoena A.

Checking for Understanding Match the term with the correct definition. ___ B subpoena A. lying under oath ___ A perjury B. a legal order that a person appear or produce requested documents ___ E contempt ___ D immunity ___ C legislative veto C. the provisions Congress wrote into some laws that allowed it to review and cancel actions of executive agencies D. freedom from prosecution for witnesses whose testimony ties them to illegal acts E. willful obstruction of justice

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Watkins v. United States, GAO. In Watkins v. United

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Watkins v. United States, GAO. In Watkins v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress must respect witnesses’ constitutional rights just as a court does. The General Accounting Office, or GAO, is the congressional support agency which monitors the finances of federal agencies to make sure public money has been spent appropriately and legally.

Checking for Understanding 4. Identify three congressional investigations that focused on the executive branch.

Checking for Understanding 4. Identify three congressional investigations that focused on the executive branch. Any three: House and Mc. Carthy investigations of Communists in government, Senate investigation of Democratic fund-raising, Watergate investigation, Iran-Contra Affair investigation.

Critical Thinking 5. Synthesizing Information How does the use of a subpoena assist legislators

Critical Thinking 5. Synthesizing Information How does the use of a subpoena assist legislators in the committee hearing process? A subpoena helps ensure that needed witnesses or evidence will be available during investigations.

Checks and Balances Suppose you are a reporter assigned to cover a recent congressional

Checks and Balances Suppose you are a reporter assigned to cover a recent congressional investigation. Prepare a news broadcast to present to the class in which you analyze the purpose of the investigation and its findings. You might want to include interviews as well.

Congress and the President Key Terms national budget, impoundment Find Out • How have

Congress and the President Key Terms national budget, impoundment Find Out • How have the characteristics of the American system led to competition and conflict between Congress and the president? • Why has power shifted back and forth between the president and Congress over the years?

Congress and the President Understanding Concepts Checks and Balances Why do some people state

Congress and the President Understanding Concepts Checks and Balances Why do some people state that deadlock and inaction are built-in features of American government? Section Objective Analyze the dynamics in the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government.

The Watergate scandal in 1973 marked the end of a long, bitter struggle between

The Watergate scandal in 1973 marked the end of a long, bitter struggle between Congress and the president. By then, relations between a Republican president and a Democratic-controlled Congress were seriously strained. President Nixon had refused to spend funds appropriated by Congress to carry out its programs. But when Congress passed bills to end this practice, Nixon vetoed them. Angry members of Congress charged that Nixon had established an “imperial presidency. ”

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) A. The members of Congress represent local,

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) A. The members of Congress represent local, more narrow interests than the president, and therefore their ideas often differ from the president’s. B. The Constitution’s system of checks and balances may cause conflicts between the legislative and the executive branches. C. Partisan differences can affect relations between Congress and the president.

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) D. The organization of Congress and its

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) D. The organization of Congress and its procedures may cause conflicts with the president. E. Members of Congress often serve in government longer than any president and may resist the president’s timetable for enacting laws.

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) What do you think might be done

I. Cooperation and Conflict (pages 172– 174) What do you think might be done to help end the “gridlock” that sometimes occurs between Congress and the president? Answers will vary. See discussion of gridlock on text page 173.

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) A. Throughout the nation’s history, the

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) A. Throughout the nation’s history, the balance of power has shifted back and forth between Congress and the president. B. Congress can limit or end the emergency powers it has granted the president. C. Congress has reduced the president’s power in planning the budget and spending money that Congress has appropriated.

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) D. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) D. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 established permanent budget committees for each house, created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and limited the president’s ability to impound funds. E. The Congressional Budget Office provides financial experts to help Congress increase its role in planning the budget. F. Congress no longer uses the legislative veto but still seeks to ensure that the president carries out its intent in executing laws.

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) G. In 1996 Congress authorized the

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) G. In 1996 Congress authorized the line-item veto for the president to veto specific spending items in appropriation bills. In 1998 the Supreme Court declared the line-item veto to be unconstitutional.

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) Why did Congress finally act in

II. The Struggle for Power (pages 174– 176) Why did Congress finally act in 1976 to end the emergency powers it had granted the president in 1935? Congress demonstrated its desire to increase its power relative to the executive branch.

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one below,

Checking for Understanding 1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one below, identify three ways in which Congress has gained and lost power. Gained: federal budget; legislative veto; limits on emergency powers of the president. Lost: emergency powers to close banks; control wages and prices; rationing of consumer goods.

Checking for Understanding 2. Define national budget, impoundment. The national budget is the yearly

Checking for Understanding 2. Define national budget, impoundment. The national budget is the yearly financial plan for the national government. Impoundment refers to the president’s refusal to spend money Congress has voted to fund a program.

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Congressional Budget Office. The Congressional Budget Office, or CBO,

Checking for Understanding 3. Identify Congressional Budget Office. The Congressional Budget Office, or CBO, provides financial experts to help Congress in its role of planning the budget.

Checking for Understanding 4. Why do the different constituencies of the president and Congress

Checking for Understanding 4. Why do the different constituencies of the president and Congress cause conflict between the executive and legislative branches? Congress speaks for a narrower group of people than does the president. A program in the national interest may hurt the people of a state or congressional district.

Checking for Understanding 5. How does the political party system contribute to conflict between

Checking for Understanding 5. How does the political party system contribute to conflict between the president and Congress? When different parties control Congress and the White House, party politics adds to congressional opposition to the president’s proposals.

Critical Thinking 6. Synthesizing Information One analyst described the constitutional system between Congress and

Critical Thinking 6. Synthesizing Information One analyst described the constitutional system between Congress and the president as “an invitation to struggle. ” Is this description accurate? Explain. Because the Constitution requires that Congress share powers with the executive branch, and because Congress has developed the power to oversee the executive branch, the relationship is marked by conflict.

Checks and Balances One struggle for power that exists between the president and Congress

Checks and Balances One struggle for power that exists between the president and Congress is the president’s right to send armed forces overseas. When has the president committed military forces overseas without a declaration of war? Create a time line indicating the year and the reason for these military involvements.

Reviewing Key Terms Match each of the descriptions below with the term it describes.

Reviewing Key Terms Match each of the descriptions below with the term it describes. Not every item will have a description. a. appropriations bill b. impoundment c. immunity d. implied powers e. legislative veto f. subpoena ____ d 1. Powers not specified in the Constitution ____ a 2. Grants money to carry out programs ____ f 3. Compels a witness to appear ____ b 4. Refusing to spend funds ____ c 5. Freedom from prosecution

Recalling Facts 1. How are expressed powers and implied powers related? Implied powers are

Recalling Facts 1. How are expressed powers and implied powers related? Implied powers are necessary to carry out expressed powers. 2. Why has the power to regulate interstate commerce become such an important power of Congress? The definition of interstate commerce has expanded to give Congress authority over virtually everything that crosses state lines.

Recalling Facts 3. List five nonlegislative powers of Congress chooses the president and vice

Recalling Facts 3. List five nonlegislative powers of Congress chooses the president and vice president if no candidate has a majority in the Electoral College; charges federal officials suspected of misconduct in office and removes them if guilty; and proposes amendments to the Constitution. Furthermore, the Senate confirms presidential appointments of federal officials and ratifies treaties.

Recalling Facts 4. What are three methods that Congress uses to oversee the executive

Recalling Facts 4. What are three methods that Congress uses to oversee the executive branch? Congress requires executive agencies to report on their activities, asks the congressional support agencies to study an agency’s work, and reviews each agency’s budget. 5. Identify three powers that Congress and the president share. The Congress and president share the power to pay expenses, appoint federal officials, and make treaties.

Recalling Facts 6. What are the main causes of conflict between the president and

Recalling Facts 6. What are the main causes of conflict between the president and Congress? Causes include different constituencies, the system of checks and balances, congressional organization, party politics, and differing political timetables. 7. On what grounds did the Supreme Court declare the legislative veto unconstitutional? The Supreme Court claimed it is an unconstitutional violation of the separation of powers principle. Presidents have called it a challenge to their authority.

Understanding Concepts 1. Constitutional Interpretations Explain how the Constitution’s commerce clause has helped African

Understanding Concepts 1. Constitutional Interpretations Explain how the Constitution’s commerce clause has helped African Americans obtain equal rights. Congress has used this power to outlaw racial discrimination by businesses that are in any way part of interstate commerce. This use of the commerce clause has ranged from serving travelers who cross state lines to businesses that get supplies of products from other states. It also enables Congress to regulate working conditions across the nation.

Understanding Concepts 2. Checks and Balances What arguments might be made to support a

Understanding Concepts 2. Checks and Balances What arguments might be made to support a legislative veto power for Congress? Answers will vary but should focus on the right of Congress to make sure that the intents of the laws it passes are carried out.

Critical Thinking 1. Making Generalizations On what basis might the writers of the Constitution

Critical Thinking 1. Making Generalizations On what basis might the writers of the Constitution have decided which powers should go only to Congress and which powers Congress should share with the president? Possible answer: They might have divided powers they thought were basic to the process of government and would influence the exercise of other powers.

Critical Thinking 2. Understanding Cause and Effect In a graphic organizer like the one

Critical Thinking 2. Understanding Cause and Effect In a graphic organizer like the one below, indicate how the power struggle between the president and Congress strengthens or weakens the government. Graphic organizers will vary, but those indicating a stronger government may note a distribution of power. Those indicating a weaker government may note deadlock and inaction.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 1. What is happening in this cartoon? Three speakers are

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 1. What is happening in this cartoon? Three speakers are evaluating a glass with liquid in it. The optimist and pessimist describe it as “half full” and “half empty, ” respectively, but the administration spokesperson describes it as both—and finds a way to promote the president at the same time.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 2. Which side does the administration spokesperson support? Explain. The

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 2. Which side does the administration spokesperson support? Explain. The administration spokesperson supports the president, as shown in his linking the president with the “half full” view and speaking of the president’s “tireless efforts. ”

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 3. Is the administration spokesperson an objective judge? What biases

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity 3. Is the administration spokesperson an objective judge? What biases might he have? Students probably will suggest that the administration spokesperson cannot be objective, for he is employed to support the president. He probably has biases that favor executive policies and treat other points of view as obstacles or even enemies.

If Congress never issued a declaration of war, how did the United States wind

If Congress never issued a declaration of war, how did the United States wind up sending troops to fight in Vietnam? When North Vietnamese patrol boats allegedly attacked American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964, Congress passed a resolution that gave President Lyndon Johnson power to “take all necessary measures” to protect American forces. By the following spring, Johnson was sending American soldiers to Vietnam in ever-increasing numbers.

1) $50; $100 2) to help finance government operations 3) safety, ease, tax advantages,

1) $50; $100 2) to help finance government operations 3) safety, ease, tax advantages, patriotism

1) as the most important 2) use of government supplies, equipment, and time 3)

1) as the most important 2) use of government supplies, equipment, and time 3) to collect information about the alleged illegal fundraising activities of the DNC

2) Possible fear of a pocket veto 1) The House voted to override one

2) Possible fear of a pocket veto 1) The House voted to override one veto, but the bill stalled in the Senate. 3) One possibility is by making vetoed bills part of other bills, which later become law

Power Publishing Check recent news coverage about the powers of Congress—the power to tax

Power Publishing Check recent news coverage about the powers of Congress—the power to tax and spend, to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, to approve presidential appointments, to conduct investigations, to practice legislative oversight, and so on. As you read the chapter, summarize what each set of powers involves. Then find newspaper and newsmagazine articles that deal with congressional actions. Summarize the articles and indicate which type of power Congress exercised in each case. Review the articles and summaries and post them on a bulletin board under appropriate headings.

The most bitter battle on treaty ratification in American history took place in 1919

The most bitter battle on treaty ratification in American history took place in 1919 when, despite the urging of President Woodrow Wilson, the Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles to end World War I.

Patent “Open and available to anyone’s study” is the meaning of the common adjective

Patent “Open and available to anyone’s study” is the meaning of the common adjective patent. Its legal use comes from the fact that the legal papers giving someone the right to make and sell a new invention for a set number of years once were written on open sheets of parchment (called letters patent), with the authorizing seal at the bottom.

Bill, Please! The bill a president signs is not just any piece of paper.

Bill, Please! The bill a president signs is not just any piece of paper. The finalized bill, called “An Act of Congress, ” is reprinted for presentation to the president. In the past, the paper was thick parchment. Today, it is made of heavy, high-quality paper with gold writing and bordered by a thick navy ribbon. The bill sits in an impressive navy blue box, ready for signing.

The Legislative Veto Review what is said at the end of Section 2 and

The Legislative Veto Review what is said at the end of Section 2 and in this section about the term legislative veto and the way in which Congress used that power before it was declared unconstitutional in 1983. Then informally debate this question: Does the legislative veto violate the principle of separation of powers, or is it an important part of the system of checks and balances?

Local Courts You probably will never be involved in a congressional investigation, but you

Local Courts You probably will never be involved in a congressional investigation, but you should know about aspects of such investigations that might apply in court cases on the local level. Research witness rights, in particular, finding out how a court in your community would go about issuing a subpoena or granting immunity, what the penalty for perjury might be, and so on.

Economics The colonies had laws against counterfeiters even before the Constitution provided for the

Economics The colonies had laws against counterfeiters even before the Constitution provided for the power to print money. Offenders could be sentenced to death. Engraver James Mar, facing execution by hanging for counterfeiting, was granted clemency after the women of the surrounding community presented the governor with a petition.

Robin Deykes Organizations such as the International Deaf Pilots Association joined Deykes in pressuring

Robin Deykes Organizations such as the International Deaf Pilots Association joined Deykes in pressuring the FAA to rethink its proposal regarding English fluency. The FAA’s report reaffirmed the need for “a basic command of the English language, ” but it added a provision, enacted in August 1997, “to permit individuals who have a command of the English language, but who may not be able to meet the proposed requirements due to a medical condition, to have limitations placed on their pilot certificates that would continue to permit them to exercise the privileges of their certificate. ” Activity: Analyze the potential political changes that could result from this rule’s challenge.

More About Minimum Wage Laws The first minimum wage laws in the United States

More About Minimum Wage Laws The first minimum wage laws in the United States were made by state governments and applied only to women and minors. In 1923 the Supreme Court declared such laws unconstitutional. The Court also invalidated the federal government’s first attempt to establish minimum wage scales for men and women in 1933. Not until 1938, with the enactment of the Fair Labor Standards Act, was a national minimum wage fixed— 25¢ per hour for workers in interstate commerce. As the text points out, even today there are many exceptions to the minimum wage standards.

Jeannette Rankin (R-Montana), the first woman elected to Congress, was a pacifist who once

Jeannette Rankin (R-Montana), the first woman elected to Congress, was a pacifist who once commented, “You can no more win a war than you can win an earthquake. ” She voted against the United States’s entry into World War I and was the only member of Congress to vote against the United States’s entry into World War II.

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