Chapter 9 Reading Arguments Critically Arguments What is

Chapter 9 Reading Arguments Critically

Arguments What is an argument? A writing that attempts to open readers’ minds to an opinion, change readers’ opinion, or move readers to action.

Arguments What is a good argument? �A work of negotiation and problem solving. �Both reader and writer search for knowledge to create common ground between them. Readers job: know whether you’re convinced by the argument

Elements of Argument 3 Main Elements �Claims: positive statements that require support (thesis statement) �Evidence: facts, examples, expert opinions, and other information that support the claim �Assumptions: writer’s underlying beliefs, opinions, etc that tie the evidence to the claim

Questions for Critically Reading an Argument �What claim does the writer make? �What kinds of quality evidence does the writer provide to support the claims. �What assumptions underlie the argument, connecting evidence to claims? Are they believable? �Is the writer reasonable? �Is the argument logical? �Are you convinced? Why or why not?

Recognizing Opinions Opinion – �a judgment based on facts and arguable on the basis of facts �Do not make arguments by themselves �You must satisfy yourself that the writer has specified evidence for the opinions. Example: The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories.

Recognizing Facts Fact – �A verifiable statement that can be proved as true Example: Last year tuition increased 16 percent. �Claim of fact cannot work as thesis of an argument. �Facts offer crucial evidence for the claim

Recognizing Beliefs Belief – �A conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values �Often called opinions but they are not based on facts Example: Abortion is legalized murder. �Cannot serve as central or supporting claims of an argument.

Recognizing Prejudices Prejudice – �Opinion based on insufficient or unexamined evidence Example: Women are bad drivers. Athletes are unintelligent. �Prejudice is testable – can be contested and disproved on the basis of facts.

Evidence for Argument �Facts – verifiable statements �Statistics – facts expressed in numbers �Examples – specific cases �Expert opinions – judgments of authorities �Appeals to readers’ beliefs or needs

Criteria for Weighing Evidence �Is it accurate: trustworthy, exact, undistorted? �Is it relevant: authoritative, pertinent, current? �Is it representative: true to context? �Is it adequate: plentiful, specific?

Watching Language, Hearing Tone – �The expression of the writer’s attitudes toward himself or herself, toward the subject, toward the reader. �Can tell you quite a bit about the writer’s intentions, biases, and trustworthiness.

Reasonableness �The sense you get as a reader that the author is fair and sincere. �Writer does not conceal or hide facts, distort information, use language to manipulate you

Chapter 10 Writing an Argument

Argument �Try to clarify an issue or solve a problem �An argument subject must be arguable Reasonable people will disagree over it and be able to support their positions with evidence

Thesis Statement �Makes a claim that you want your readers to act on. Example: The new room fees are unjustified given the condition of the dormitories. �Must specify the basis of your claim

Analyzing Purpose and Audience Purpose – �engage your readers and convince them of your position or persuade them to act �Depends on the response of your readers (audience) Need a sense of who they are and where they stand

Using Reason The thesis of your argument is a conclusion you reach by reasoning about evidence. 2 types of reasoning: 1. Inductive 2. make specific observations and you induce or infer a generalization (or claim) Example: Model X is the most reliable. Deductive Proceed from generalization to your own specific circumstances See pgs. 200 &201

Using Reason

Using Evidence �Argument’s reasonableness depends on your evidence �Kind and quantity of evidence you use should be determined on your purpose, your subject and the needs of your audience.

Responsible Use of Evidence �Don’t distort �Don’t stack the deck �Don’t exaggerate �Don’t oversimplify �Don’t manipulate

Reaching Your Readers �Appeal to their reason and emotions �Present yourself as someone worth reading �You account for views opposing your own

Rational and Emotional Appeals �Most arguments combine both �Rational appeals Appeals to readers’ capacities for reasoning logically b/t evidence and claims �Emotional appeals Appeals to readers’ beliefs and feelings

Ethical Appeal �Sense you are being a competent, fair, trustworthy person �Ample evidence �Appropriate emotional appeals demonstrate you share readers’ beliefs and needs �Correct in grammar, spelling, etc – underscores confidence �Sincere tone – assure readers you are a balanced person who wants to reason with them

Ethical Appeal - AVOID �Insulting words �Biased language �Sarcasm �Exclamation points

Responding to Opposing Views �Good test of reasonableness is how you handle possible objections �You show yourself as honorable and fair �Strengthen your ethical appeal thus your entire argument �Common way to handle them – state them, then refute the ones you can. �Demonstrate why they are less compelling

Organizing your Argument �Introduction – establishes significance of the subject �Body – state and develop the claims supporting thesis using relevant evidence �Response to opposing views – addresses views, finds common ground, demonstrate greater strengths, etc. �Conclusion – completes the argument, restates thesis, summarizes the supporting claims, makes final appeal to readers