CHAPTER 9 Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle

CHAPTER 9 Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle and Late Childhood

Chapter Outline • • Physical changes and health Children with disabilities Cognitive changes Language development Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Physical Changes and Health • • • Body growth and change The brain Motor development Exercise Health, illness, and disease Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Body Growth and Change • Growth averages 2 -3 inches per year • Weight gain averages 5 -7 pounds a year • Head circumference and waist circumference decrease in relation to body height in middle and late childhood • Bones continue to ossify during middle and late childhood but yield to pressure and pull more than mature bones Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Brain • Brain volume stabilizes • Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex • Increases in cortical thickness • Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Motor Development • Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated • Girls outperform boys in their use of fine motor skills • Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood due to increased myelination of the central nervous system Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Exercise • Higher level of physical activity is linked to lower level of metabolic disease risk based on following measures – Cholesterol, waist circumference, and insulin levels • Aerobic exercise benefits: – Children’s attention and memory – Effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior – Creativity Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Exercise • Ways to get children to exercise – Offer physical activity programs school facilities – Improve physical fitness activities in schools – Have children plan community and school activities – Encourage families to focus more on physical activity Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Health, Illness, and Disease • Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health • Accidents and injuries – Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury • Overweight children – Causes - Heredity and environmental contexts – Consequences - Diabetes, hypertension, and elevated blood cholesterol levels Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Health, Illness, and Disease – Intervention programs • Emphasize getting parents to engage in healthier lifestyles themselves • Feed children healthier food and get them to exercise more • Cardiovascular disease – Uncommon in children but risk factors are present Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Health, Illness, and Disease • Cancer – Second leading cause of death in children 5– 14 years old – Most common child cancer is leukemia – Children with cancer are surviving longer because of advancements in cancer treatment Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Types of Cancer in Children Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Children with Disabilities • The scope of disabilities • Educational issues Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

U. S. Children with a Disability Who Receive Special Education Services Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Scope of Disabilities • 13% of 3 to 21 year olds in the U. S. receive special education-related services in 20112013 • The U. S. Department of Education includes both students with a learning disability and ADHD in the category of learning disability Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Scope of Disabilities • Learning disability: Difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling – Dyslexia: Severe impairment in the ability to read and spell – Dysgraphia: Difficulty in handwriting – Dyscalculia: Developmental arithmetic disorder Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Scope of Disabilities • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity – Possible causes • Genetics • Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development • Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development • Low birth weight Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Regions of the Brain in which Children with ADHD Had a Delayed Peak in the Thickness of the Cerebral Cortex Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Scope of Disabilities • Emotional and behavioral disorders: Serious, persistent problems that involve: – Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters – Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Scope of Disabilities • Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome – Autistic disorder: Onset in the first three years of life • Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior – Asperger syndrome: Good verbal language skills • Milder nonverbal language problems • Restricted range of interests and relationships Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Educational Issues • Individualized education plan (IEP): Written statement that is specifically tailored for the disabled student • Least restrictive environment (LRE): Setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled children are educated • Inclusion: Educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Cognitive Changes • • Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory Information processing Intelligence Extremes of intelligence Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory • Concrete operational stage – Ages 7 to 11 – Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets – Seriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension – Transitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory • Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage – Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony – Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s development Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory • Neo-Piagetians: Argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision – Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, giving more emphasis to: • Information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing • During these years, most children dramatically improve their ability to sustain and control attention • Pay more attention to task-relevant stimuli • Changes in memory, thinking, metacognition, and executive function Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing • Long-term memory: Increases with age during middle and late childhood – Knowledge and expertise • Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing • Working memory: is a passive storehouse to keep information until moved to long-term memory – Considered to be a mental workbench – One key component is the central executive Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Working Memory Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing • Autobiographical memory - Memory of significant events and experiences in one’s life – Strategies: Deliberate mental activities that improve the processing of information • Elaboration: Involves engaging in more extensive processing of information • Engage in mental imagery • Understanding the material • Repeat with variation • Embed memory-relevant language Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing – Fuzzy trace theory: Memory is best understood by considering verbatim memory trace and gist • Thinking – Executive function - Following dimensions of executive function are the most important for cognitive development and school success • Self-control/inhibition • Working memory • Flexibility Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing – Critical thinking: Reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence • Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible • Creative thinking: Ability to think in novel and unusual ways – Come up with unique solutions to problems – Convergent thinking: Produces one correct answer and is characteristic of kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing – Divergent thinking: Produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity • Scientific thinking – Asking fundamental questions about reality and – Identifying causal relations Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Information Processing • Metacognition: Cognition about cognition – Metamemory - Knowledge about memory • Executive functioning – Self-control/inhibition – Working memory – Flexibility • Brainstorming: Individuals are encouraged to come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other’s ideas Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence • Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences – Individual differences: Stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other – Binet tests • Mental age (MA): Individual’s level of mental development relative to others Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence • Intelligence quotient (IQ): Person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 • Normal distribution: Symmetrical distribution – Most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores – Few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range – Wechsler Scales - Provide an overall IQ score and yield following composite indexes • Verbal Comprehension Index • Working Memory Index • Processing Speed Index Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

The Normal Curve and Stanford. Binet IQ Scores Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence • Types of intelligence – Triarchic theory of intelligence: Intelligence comes in following forms • Analytical intelligence • Creative intelligence • Practical intelligence Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence – Gardner’s eight frames of mind: • • Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence • Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches • Multiple-intelligence views have taken the concept of specific intelligences too far – Culture and intelligence • Interpreting differences in IQ scores • • Influences of genetics Environmental influences Group differences Culture-fair tests: Designed to be free of cultural bias Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Increasing IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997 Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Intelligence • Using intelligence tests – Avoid stereotyping and expectations – Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence – Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Extremes of Intelligence • Intellectual disability: Limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ and has difficulty adapting to everyday life – Organic intellectual disability: Caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage – Cultural-familial retardation: No evidence of organic brain damage • IQ is generally between 50 and 70 Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Extremes of Intelligence • Gifted: Above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something – Three criteria • Precocity • Marching to their own drummer • A passion to master – Nature-nurture – Domain-specific giftedness and development – Education of children who are gifted Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Language Development • Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness • Reading • Writing • Bilingualism and second-language learning Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness • Middle and late childhood – Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized • Similar advances in grammar skills • Metalinguistic awareness: Knowledge about language – Understanding what a preposition is – Being able to discuss the sounds of a language Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Reading • Whole-language approach: Reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning • Phonics approach: Reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Writing • Parents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing – Not be concerned with the formation of letters or spelling Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning • Second-language learning – Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive development • Subtractive bilingualism • Bilingual education – Research supports bilingual education Copyright © 2017 Mc. Graw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of Mc. Graw-Hill Education.