Chapter 9 Memory Memory persistence of learning over

Chapter 9 Memory

Memory § persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information. We study the extremes. § Flashbulb Memory § a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. What events are examples for you? On page 345, 2 nd paragraph, read the questions posed. These should spark some thought and perhaps give you ideas for your journal writing!!

Memory § Memory as Information Processing § similar to a computer : write to file ; save to disk ; read from disk. It works sequentially and faster ; we do many things at once (in parallel) but process slower. § Encoding § the processing of information into the memory system. Get info. into brain! i. e. , extracting meaning § Storage § the retention of encoded information over time § Retrieval § process of getting information out of memory

Memory Atkinson-Schiffrin three-stage processing model of memory (Fig. 9. 1 on page 346) § Sensory Memory § the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system § Short-Term Memory § § activated memory that holds a few items briefly look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten § Long-Term Memory § the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system § Working Memory § focuses more on the processing (how we attend to, rehearse, and manipulate info) of briefly stored information. We associate old and new info – altering our schemas – and solve problems.

A Simplified Memory Model Sensory input External events Attention to important or novel information Sensory memory Encoding Short-term memory Encoding Retrieving Long-term memory

Encoding: Getting Information In § Automatic Processing § § § unconscious encoding of incidental information about: space; time; frequency well-learned information: word meanings we can learn automatic processing: reading backwards Encoding Effortful Automatic § Effortful Processing § § requires attention and conscious effort § Rehearsal conscious repetition of info: to maintain it in consciousness; to encode it for storage

Encoding § Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables § TUV ZOF GEK WAV - The more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 - Time spent learning = amount remembered. Increased retention with overlearning. Other principles: § Next-in-line effect – we don’t recall previous person’s info § Spacing Effect - distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice. Those who learn quickly, forget quickly. Expanding space rehearsal – increase time between rehearsing a piece of info. § Serial position effect – first & last items more easily remembered Our memory system is designed to support our functioning /survival – which psychological perspective is emphasized here? (look at page 11!)

Encoding Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 20 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 Number of repetitions of list on day 1 64

Encoding: Serial Position Effect Percent age of words recalled 90 80 Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list. With time 1 st items become more often recalled. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Position of word in list 9 10 11 12

What Do We Encode? We recall what we encode – our mental model that we constructed! § Semantic Encoding § § encoding of meaning; including meaning of words. Better memory when meaningful context provided. Self-reference effect – personal meaning in what you learn increases your ability to recall. § Acoustic Encoding § § encoding of sound, especially sound of words. Great memory of rhyme – “What sobriety conceals, alcohol reveals” Include mnemonics – ‘jingle’, rhyme, “peg-word” systems § Visual Encoding § § encoding of picture images – Imagery - mental pictures - a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding § Rosy retrospection – recalling more positively mundane events or forgetting the negative aspects Mnemonics - memory aids - especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Encoding

Encoding § Chunking § § § organizing items into familiar, manageable units (generally no more than 3 or 4 in a chunk) § like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms § HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior § ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding § Hierarchies § complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning (semantic Encoding) Imagery (visual Encoding) Chunks Organization Hierarchies

Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory § § Iconic Memory - a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli - a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Echoic Memory - momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage: Short-Term Memory Percentage 90 who recalled consonants 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 § Short-Term Memory § § 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2

Storage: Long-Term Memory § § Psychologists study memory “software” and neuroscientists the “hardware”. Question: What is memory’s physical basis? § How does storage work? “defies comprehension” § Karl Lashley (1950) - rats learn maze ; lesion cortex ; test memory. Conclusion: memory doesn’t reside in one part of the brain. § Synaptic changes § Long-term Potentiation § increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation – neural explanation for learning and remembering associations – goal is to enhance human long-term memory capability. § Strong emotions make for stronger memories § some stress hormones boost learning and retention – and in prolonged stress cause the opposite.

Storage: Long-Term Memory § Amnesia--the loss of memory § Explicit Memory § § memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory) hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage in various parts of the brain – to retrieve a memory requires recovery of parts from sites in the brain and integrates them with emotional associations in the amygdala (key to emotional memories) to form a memory § Implicit Memory § § § retention independent of conscious recollection (procedural memory) – they can learn but cannot recall learning. (example: play a golf course over & over and improve each time, but can’t recall playing the course before) Cerebellum - neural center where implicit memory locates This dual system of memory explains research done on brain-damaged people.

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects

Storage: Long-Term Memory § MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus

Quick Review – Crash Course

Retrieval: Getting Information Out § Recall § measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier - as on a fill-in-the blank test. § Recognition § Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned - as on a multiple-choice test § Relearning § memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time § Priming § activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Like a search engine does, we associate different concepts to our memories. Connections are made amongst many different concepts.

Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled increased when the 40 place for testing was the same as where 30 it was learned. 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Water/ water Land/ land Same contexts for hearing and recall

Retrieval Cues § After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee. Collier, 1989).

Retrieval Cues § Deja Vu (French)--already seen § § cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before. " § Mood-congruent Memory § tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood ; memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues. § State-dependent Memory § what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Forgetting § Forgetting – gets a bad rap! § Imagine always remembering everything – let it go!! Mental health needs forgetting. § Forgetting as encoding failure § Information never enters the long-term memory. Age, change blindness, selective attention. Attention External events Short- Encoding Sensory term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Longterm memory

Forgetting § Forgetting as encoding failure § Which penny is the real thing?

Forgetting – Storage Decay Percentage of list retained when relearning 60 § 50 40 30 20 10 0 12345 10 15 20 25 Time in days since learning list 30 Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-initially rapid, then levels off with time

Forgetting – Storage Decay § The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Percentage of 100% original 90 vocabulary 80 retained Retention drops, 70 then levels off 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course

Retrieval § Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting A quick review video!

Forgetting as Interference § Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information § § Proactive (forward-acting) Interference § disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information – ex. multiple phone #s Retroactive (backward-acting) Interference § disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information – ex. New students names… can’t remember old students

Forgetting as Interference

Forgetting § Retroactive Interference Percentage 90% of syllables 80 recalled 70 Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep 60 50 40 30 20 10 After remaining awake 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 8

Forgetting § § Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting. Interference § Motivated Forgetting § people unknowingly revise memories – protect and enhance our self-image § Repression § § defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Many doubt this occurs often. Do we actively forget negative experiences in order to maintain a ‘normal’ life?

Memory Construction § We filter information and fill in missing pieces § Misinformation Effect § incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event; more likely with leading questions; increases with time ; we convince ourselves of its accuracy. § Source Amnesia § attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) ; ex. Reagan’s story of heroic medal winner actually being from a movie! § True & False Memories § § How memories feel, or how persistent they are does NOT determine their truth. Memory construction typically overestimate and/or underestimate their memory of feelings/events as well as past ideas/beliefs. Crucial for police etc. to be trained “cognitive interview” techniques.

Memory Construction Depiction of actual accident § Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? ” Memory construction

Memory Construction § Memories of Abuse § Repressed or Constructed? § Child sexual abuse does occur; Some adults do actually forget such episodes § False Memory Syndrome § § § condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists The big question in all of this is how do we discern false memories from the accurate recollection of traumatic sexual abuse.

Quick Review – Crash Course

Memory Construction § Most people can agree on the following: § § § § Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory § § § § Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices § associate with peg words--something already stored § make up story § chunk—acronyms Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation Minimize interference Test your own knowledge § rehearse § determine what you do not yet know