Chapter 9 Critical Thinking Bridging the Gap 8e

Chapter 9: Critical Thinking Bridging the Gap, 8/e Brenda Smith Power. Point by Jo. Ann Yaworski and Mimi Markus © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

In this Chapter You Will Learn about: ¬Critical thinking ¬Characteristics of critical thinkers ¬Barriers to critical thinking ¬Categories of support for arguments ¬How to recognize an argument ¬Argument fallacies ¬Inductive and deductive reasoning © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

What Is Thinking? Thinking is an organized and controlled mental activity that helps you solve problems, make decisions, and understand ideas. Good thinkers: ¬ Form a plan ¬ Systematically try different solutions ¬ Work with confidence ¬ Persistently stick with task © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Thinking Critically Thinking critically is the process of deliberating in a purposeful, organized manner in order to assess the value of information, both old and new. Critical thinkers: – Search – Compare – Analyze – Clarify – Evaluate – Conclude © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Four Habits of Effective Critical Thinkers ¬ Be willing to plan: Think first and write later. Don’t be impulsive. Develop a habit of planning. ¬ Be flexible: Be open to new ideas. Consider new solutions for old problems. ¬ Be persistent: Continue to work even when you are tired and discouraged. Good thinking is hard work. ¬ Be willing to self-correct: Don’t be defensive about errors. Figure out what went wrong and learn from your mistakes. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Academic Goals for Students ¬Think systematically ¬Evaluate ¬Draw conclusions based on logic © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Terminology for Critical Thinking © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Barriers to Critical Thinking ¬ Frame of reference ¬ Wishful thinking ¬ Hasty moral judgements ¬ Reliance on authority ¬ Labels © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

What Is an Argument? ¬ An argument is an assertion that supports a conclusion and is intended to persuade (Ex: “You should water the grass tonight because rain is not predicted for several days. ”) ¬ Non-argumentative statements do not question truth but simply offer information to explain and thereby help us understand (Ex: “The grass is wet because it rained last night. ”) © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Steps in Analyzing an Argument Step 1: Identify the position on the issue Step 2: Identify the support Step 3: Evaluate the support Step 4: Evaluate the argument © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Step 1: Identify the Position on the Issue Identify the conclusion. This is the position on the issue (the main point). Key words that signal the issue: as a result in summary consequently it follows that finally therefore for this reason thus © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Step 2: Identify Support in the Argument Identify the significant details, called premises, that support the main point. Key words that signal significant premises: Because assuming that since given that if first, second, finally © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Categories of Support for Arguments - Part (1) ¬ Facts: Objective truths – Ask: How were the facts gathered? Are they true? ¬ Examples: Anecdotes to demonstrate the truth. – Ask: Are the examples true and relevant? ¬ Analogies: Comparisons to similar cases. – Ask: Are the analogies accurate and relevant? ¬ Authority: Words from a recognized expert. – Ask: What are the credentials and biases of the expert? © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Categories of Support for Arguments - Part (2) ¬ Causal relationship: Saying one thing caused another – Ask: Is it an actual cause or merely an association? ¬ Common knowledge claim: Assertion of wide acceptance – Ask: Is it relevant? Does everyone really believe it? ¬ Statistics: Numerical data – Ask: Do the numbers accurately describe the population? ¬ Personal experiences: Personal anecdotes – Ask: Is the experience applicable to other situations? © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Step 3: Evaluate the Support Evaluate the support according to three levels of reasoning: 1. Relevance 2. Believability 3. Consistency © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

What Is a Fallacy? A fallacy is an inference that appears to be reasonable at first glance, but closer inspection proves it to be unrelated, unreliable, or illogical. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (1) ¬ Ad hominem: An attack on the person rather than the issue in hopes that if the person is opposed, the idea will be opposed (Ex: Do not listen to Mr. Hite’s views on education because he is a banker. ) ¬ Bandwagon: The idea that everybody is doing it and you will be left out if you do not quickly join the crowd (Ex: Everybody around the world is drinking Coke, so you should too) ¬ Misleading analogy: A comparison of two things suggesting that they are similar when they are in fact distinctly different (Ex: College students are just like elementary school students; they need to be taught self-discipline. ) © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (2) ¬ Straw person: A setup in which a distorted or exaggerated form of the opponent’s argument is introduced and knocked down as if to represent a totally weak opposition (Ex: When a teen-aged daughter is told she cannot go out on the weeknight before a test, she replies with “that’s unreasonable to say that I can never go out on a weeknight. ”) ¬ Testimonials: Opinions of agreement from respected celebrities who are not actually experts (Ex: A famous actor endorses a headache pill. ) © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (3) ¬ Transfer: An association with a positively or negatively regarded person or thing in order to lend the same association to the argument (also guilt or virtue by association) (Ex: A local politician quotes President Lincoln in a speech as if Lincoln would have agreed with and voted for the candidate. ) © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Believability Fallacies: Is the Support Believable or Highly Suspicious? ¬Incomplete facts or card stacking ¬Misinterpreted statistics ¬Overgeneralizations ¬Questionable authority © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Consistency Fallacies: Does the Support Hold Together or Does it Fall Apart & Contradict Itself? ¬Appeals to emotions ¬Appeals to pity ¬Begging the question or circular reasoning ¬Oversimplification ¬Slippery slope © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Step 4: Evaluate the Argument Allow yourself time to go over the arguments. Halpern’s four different degrees of support: 1. Unrelated reasons give no support. 2. A few weak reasons do not adequately support. 3. Many weak reasons can support. 4. Strong related reasons provide support. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Inductive Deductive ¬ Inductive reasoners: ¬ Deductive reasoners: – Start by gathering data. – Consider all available material. – Formulate a conclusion. – Start with the conclusion of a previous experience. – Apply it to a new situation. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Creative and Critical Thinking Creative thinking is the ability to generate many possible solutions to a problem. Critical thinking is the examination of these solutions for the selection of the best of all possibilities. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Two Kinds of Creative Thinking Vertical ¬ Straightforward, logical thinking to solve a problem Lateral ¬ Thinking around the problem or even redefining the problem © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman

Visit the Longman English Pages ¬ http: //www. ablongman. com/englishpages Take a Road Trip to the American Southwest! Visit the Critical Thinking and Analytical Reasoning module in your Reading Road Trip CD-ROM for multimedia, tutorials, exercises, and tests. © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. , publishing as Pearson Longman