Chapter 9 Constructivist Learning Theory Problem Solving and

Chapter 9 Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer Viewing recommendations for Windows: Use the Arial True. Type font and set your screen area to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Colors set to Hi Color (16 bit). Viewing recommendations for Macintosh: Use the Arial True. Type font and set your monitor resolution to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Color Depth set to thousands of colors.

Overview • Meaningful learning within a constructivist framework • The nature of problem solving • Transfer of learning • Technology tools for knowledge construction and problem solving Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 2

An early constructivist perspective • Jerome Bruner—Discovery Learning • Confronting students with problems that they seek solutions for either independently or in small groups • Active construction • Meaningful learning Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 3

Facets of constructivism • Meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge structures from personal experience • The essence of one person’s knowledge can never be totally transferred to another person because knowledge is the result of a personal interpretation of experience Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 4

Facets of constructivism (cont’d) • Individuals make observations, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions that are largely consistent with one another • Additions to, deletions from, or modifications to knowledge structures come mainly from the sharing of multiple perspectives Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 5

Constructivism today • Two variations on a constructivist theme – Cognitive constructivism—emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on the cognitive processes that take place within individuals – Social constructivism—emphasizes the development of meaningful learning by focusing on culture and social interactions Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 6

Conditions that foster constructivism • Cognitive apprenticeship – Teachers modeling cognitive processes that students eventually take responsibility for as they become more skilled • Situated learning – Giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts • Multiple perspectives – Students should have the opportunity to view ideas and problems from multiple ways Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 7

Limitations of constructivism • It is almost impossible to create highly detailed lesson plans because so much variation is possible • Teaching from a constructivist perspective is more time consuming and places higher demands on learners as compared to a typical lecture format Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 8

Limitations of constructivism (cont’d) • Recognize that students construct their own interpretations of things regardless of whether you teach from a constructivist perspective • Constructivism is not the only orientation to learning that you will ever need Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 9

Using a constructivist approach to meaningful learning • Arrange the learning situation so that students are exposed to different perspectives of a problem or an issue • Structure discussions by posting a specific question; by presenting a provocative, topicrelated issue; or by asking students to choose topics or subtopics Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 10

Using a constructivist approach to meaningful learning (cont’d) • If time is limited and if only one topic is to be covered, ask students to form a circle and have an all-class discussion • If abundant time is available and if a controversial or subdivided topic to be discussed, divide the class into groups of five or so and arrange for each member of each group to have eye contact with every other group member Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 11

Three common types of problems • Well-structured problems – Clearly formulated, solved by specific procedure, solution evaluated against agreed-upon standard • Ill-structured problems – Complex, few clues to solution procedures, less-definite criteria for measuring solution • Issues – Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 12

Five step approach to problem solving • • • Realize that a problem exists Understand the nature of the problem Compile relevant information Formulate and carry out a solution Evaluate the solution Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 13

Heuristics • • • Study worked examples Work on a simpler version of the problem Break the problem into parts Work backward Solve an analogous problem Create an external representation of the problem Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 14

Systematic framework for evaluation • Ask and answer a set of basic questions (who, what, where, when, how) • Identify imperfections and complications • Anticipate possible negative reactions from other people • Devise improvements Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 15

What is transfer of learning? Transfer of learning is… Students independently apply knowledge and

Types of transfer • Positive transfer – A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning. • Negative transfer – A situation in which prior learning interferes with subsequent learning • Zero transfer – A situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 17

Types of transfer (cont’d) • Specific transfer – Situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning because of specific similarities between two tasks • General transfer – Situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning due to the use of similar cognitive strategies Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 18

Types of transfer (cont’d) • Low-road transfer – Situation in which a previously learned skill or idea is almost automatically retrieved from memory and applied to a highly similar current task • High-road transfer – Situation involving the conscious, controlled, somewhat effortful formulation of an “abstraction” that allows a connection to be made between two tasks Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 19

Teaching for low-road and high-road transfer • Provide students with multiple opportunities for varied practice to help them develop a rich web of interrelated concepts • Give students opportunities to solve problems that are similar to those they will eventually have to solve • Teach students how to formulate for a variety of tasks general rules, strategies, or schemes that can be used in the future with a variety of similar problems Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 20

Teaching for low-road and high-road transfer • Give students cues that will allow them to retrieve from memory earlier -learned information that can be used to make current learning easier • Teach students to focus on the beneficial effects of creating and using rules and strategies to solve particular kinds of problems (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996; Cox, 1997; Halpern, 1998; Salomon & Perkins, 1989) Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 21

Technology tools for knowledge construction and problem solving • Hyper. Author • Computer-supported intentional learning environments • Learning through collaborative visualization • E-mail exchange programs • Jasper Woodbury and anchored instruction • Constructivist-oriented web sites Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company 22

End of Chapter 9 Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer