Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation Copyright Allyn Bacon

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation takes many forms, but all

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation – Processes involved in starting,

How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation What is motivation? • Connects observable behavior to internal states (i. e. we attribute motives to behavior —why does Julian not study? ) • Accounts for variability in behavior (both within and among people; why are you a better blog writer than essay writer? Why do some people shine at crunch time? ) {aside: panicking [limbic] v. choking [cortex]} • Explains perseverance despite adversity • Relates biology to behavior (thirst; hunger) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Types of Motivation Drive – Biologically based motivation (like sex, hunger and the need to belong) Motive – learned process that directs behavior (e. g. need for achievement) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Theories of Motivation Instinct theory – behaviors are determined by innate factors Fixed-action patterns – Genetically based behaviors, seen in all members of a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus [Problem: doesn’t describe complex behaviors] Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Theories of Motivation Drive (reduction) theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive (an aroused tension state) Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition [Problem: doesn’t account for things like play] Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Yerkes-Dodson Law– Law Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than a moderate level of arousal does High Performance Low High Arousal Level Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Sensation seekers – people with a biological need

Theories of motivation Optimal arousal: we are motivated to avoid both boredom and stress—(think of the sensation seeking scale & inverted U) [Problem: ignores cognition] Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Maslow’s Humanistic Theory of Motivation Self-transcendence Hierarchy of needs – The idea that needs occur in priority order, with biological needs as the most basic [Problems: culturally based and not strictly hierarchical] Let’s take a selfactualization self-quiz A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. What one can be, one must be. -Abraham Maslow, psychologist (1908 -1970) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Hunger Motivation Eating disorders: What we know a) There is a genetic component b) Anorexia is the deadliest mental disorder c) Healthy, permanent weight loss is very difficult Set point – Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain the same level of body fat and body weight Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Hunger Hormones Glucose—Major source of energy for body tissues. If this is low, we get hungry. An obvious motivator Hunger Hormones: Insulin—Controls blood glucose Ghrelin—Secreted by empty stomach, tells the brain you need food Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Orexin—Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus Leptin—Protein hormone secreted by fat cells. If enough is secreted, brain increases metabolism and decreases hunger PYY—Hormone from digestive tract. Tells brain “I’m not hungry” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Scientific Study of Sexuality Masters and Johnson (1957) Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution (followed by a refractory period) occurring in both men and women Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What Do Our Emotions Do For Us? Emotions have evolved to help us respond

What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process: 1. physiological arousal 2. cognitive interpretation

Psychological Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that produces an emotion • We feel afraid because we tremble; we feel sad because we cry • Arousal occurs before emotion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion Cannon-Bard theory – An emotion and a physiological response can occur at the same time, independently of each other • We feel afraid and tremble simultaneously • Arousal does not need to occur before emotion; neither one causes the other Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion Schachter–Singer theory– (aka two-factor theory) Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) emotion provoking stimulus and (2) physical arousal “We tremble, our brain interprets why we tremble, then we feel the emotion of fear (or excitement)” Accounts for misattribution of arousal—crossing a rickety bridge and falling in love Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

James. Lange theory Cannon. Bard theory Twofactor theory Stimulus: rickety bridge Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Cognitive interpretation “I feel attracted to her!” Emotion LOVE! Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Brain’s pathways: “High Road”: Stimulus—Thalamus— Sensory Cortex—Prefrontal Cortex— Amygdala--Response “Low Road”: Stimulus—Thalamus— Amygdala—Response Copyright

Zajonc: Le. Doux: Some embodied responses occur without conscious appraisal. EX: We feel alarmed by a loud sound in your empty house without consciously thinking of it as a threat Lazarus: Cognitive appraisal, sometimes w/o awareness, defines emotion EX: The sound is just the furnace Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion Cognitive appraisal theory – a person decides on an appropriate emotion following the event (reframing) Let’s look at a Crash Course that discusses these theories Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Neuroscience of Emotion The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: • The reticular formation (initiates autonomic responses) • The limbic system (amygdala—fight or flight) • The autonomic nervous system • Sympathetic and parasympathetic • Hormones • E. g. adrenalin, oxytocin and cortisol • The cerebral cortex (interpretation) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Detecting Deception People can also control their emotions to deceive Polygraph – Device that records measures of physical arousal (blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and perspiration); “lie detector” really an arousal detector Do “lie detectors” really work? Yes? No? How to spot a liar (TED talk) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Quiz Can you recognize the seven basic emotions based on a description of the

Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression People everywhere can recognize these seven basic emotions: emotions There are huge cultural differences in the context & intensity of emotional displays Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular culture or subgroup -England/France -East Coast -Gender -Church -Family Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Display rules Rate these on the Likert Scale: 1=unacceptable; 5=totally acceptable; or we could try the cell phone poll. It is acceptable for men to cry in public. It is acceptable to cry aloud at a funeral. It is acceptable to laugh out loud in public. It is acceptable to honk your horn at another driver. It is acceptable for women to cry in public. It is acceptable to express your emotions aloud to characters on screen in a movie theater. It is acceptable to express anger toward your parents. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Emotion Wheel Are you SURE you can read emotions? Are you ABSOLUTELY sure?

Types of Motivation We have both conscious and unconscious motivations -need to get a

Let’s see how your self control is Take the grit test How to increase grit 1) exercise a few times a week 2) Meditate 3) get enough sleep 4) Self-control is like a muscle, it gets tired from continuous use. Do your will-power-heavy decisions in the morning when you’re at full power 5) Willpower is contagious. Who you interact with most can affect your level of self-control (if your friends don't have grit, you may not either). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Thematic Apperception Test Take 60 seconds to create a story. Determine: What is being shown in the picture; what has led up to it; what the characters in the picture are feeling and thinking; the outcome of the event. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Measuring the Need for Achievement Projection – people attribute their own unconscious motives to others Need for achievement (n Ach) – psychological motive to excel or reach a goal Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement Individualism – (high n. Ach) places a high value on personal achievement (self-actualization/rights) Collectivism – (lower n. Ach) values group loyalty over individual distinction (attachment/responsibilities) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motives in Conflict (from easier to harder) Approach-approach conflict – choosing between two attractive options (who to ask to prom? /choosing a movie to watch) Approach-avoidance conflict – there are both appealing and unappealing aspects to a decision (staying out late on a school night) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motives in Conflict (from easier to harder) Avoidance-avoidance conflict – choosing between two unattractive options (damned if you do and damned if you don’t; train tracks experiment) Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – weighing the pros and cons among multiple options (choosing a college) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How and Why Do We Experience Stress? The stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical & mental response to a challenging or threatening situation Stressor – a situation demanding adaptation Traumatic stressor – threatens one’s safety, causing fear or helplessness Great story about stress research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and a clear conclusion Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time Let’s see how susceptible you are to stress (8 B-25). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How to reduce stress 1. Exercise (even just walking) 2. Healthy diet 3. Sleep 4. Relaxation exercises/meditation 5. Social support (give someone a hug…really) 6. Find things that make you smile and laugh 7. Take deep breaths Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Posttraumatic Stress Posttraumatic stress disorder – delayed stress reaction characterized by 1. disturbing recurring flashbacks 2. avoidance or numbing of memories of the event 3. hyperarousal (high levels of anxiety) Can last forever Used to be called shell shock Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of physical responses

The General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion – the body’s – the body adapts to the responds to presence of the resources are depleted and copes with stressor a stressor Level of normal resistance Alarm Reaction Successful Resistance Illness/death Resistance Exhaustion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Two Theories of Stress Response Fight-or-flight response – internal processes that prepare us for struggle or escape Tend-and-befriend model – some respond to stress by nurturing and protecting others, and by seeking social support Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

STRESS AND ILLNESS Psychophysiological illness: Stress-related physical illness such as hypertension & headaches Psychoneuroimmunology: Study of psychological, neural, and endocrine processes combine to affect immune system and health Lymphocytes: 2 types of white blood cells that are part of the immune system (B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes) ***Stress does not make us sick, but it does alter our immune functioning, which leaves us less able to resist infection Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Personality and Stress: Two behavior patterns Type A – intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations Type B – a relaxed, unstressed approach to life Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Responses to Stress Learned helplessness – when an organism becomes conditioned to believe that a situation is unchangeable or inescapable Vs. Resilience/Grit – passion for a long-term goal, coupled with a motivation to achieve an objective; perseverance to overcome obstacles Stress and struggle applied to school Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivating Yourself Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelings Read the great book by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi about flow. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007