Chapter 8 Conformity Influencing Behavior Slides prepared by
Chapter 8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior Slides prepared by Jo. Nell Strough, Ph. D. & Philip Lemaster, M. A. West Virginia University Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Multimedia Directory Slide 7 Slide 84 Slide 97 Confirmity to Social Influence Video Obedience and Authority Figures Video Milgram and Obedience Video Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity Influencing Behavior It were not best that we should all think alike; it is difference of opinion that makes horse races. – Mark Twain Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity—When and Why • American culture – Stresses the importance of not conforming – Celebrates the rugged individualist Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity—When and Why • Are we nonconforming creatures? • Are our decisions – Always based on what we think? – Do we sometimes use other people’s behavior to help us decide? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Confirmity to Social Influence Video Click on the screenshot to watch a brief example of conformity to social influence. Back to Directory Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity—When and Why • Conformity – A change in one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” • Example Scenarios – How should you address your psychology professor—as “Dr. Berman, ” “Professor Berman, ” “Ms. Berman, ” or “Patricia”? – How should you vote in the upcoming referendum that would raise your tuition to cover expanded student services? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” • Example Scenarios – Do you cut a piece of sushi or eat it whole? – Did the scream you just heard in the hallway come from a person joking with friends or from the victim of a mugging? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” • Informational Social Influence – The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior. – We conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 1 One Group’s Judgments in Sherif’s (1936) Autokinetic Studies People estimated how far a point of light appeared to move in a dark room. When they saw the light by themselves, their estimates varied widely. When they were brought together in groups and heard other people announce their estimates, people conformed to the group’s estimate of how much the light moved, adjusting their private beliefs based on the information other group members provided. (Adapted from Sherif, 1936) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Private Acceptance • Conforming to other people’s behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right. • Informational social influence often results in private acceptance! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Public Compliance • Conforming to other people’s behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Eight thousand pumpkins meet the Eiffel Tower. While the holiday is based on ancient British and Irish traditions surrounding All Hallows’ Eve, Halloween as we know it is a completely American phenomenon—until October 1997, that is, when “Ah-lo-ween” was introduced to the French public by retailers in an effort to boost consumer spending to spark a sagging French economy (Cohen, 1997). (Associated Press, 2002) Source: Jeremy Bembaron/Sygma/Corbis Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sherif’s Study • Public compliance or private acceptance? – Subsequent research suggested private acceptance Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Task Importance • Eyewitness conformity when picking “perpetrators” out of police lineups • Manipulated importance of task – High importance—Expect to receive $20 for accurate identification, used to develop real task – Low importance—Just another PSYC experiment – Confederates gave incorrect answers Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Even for judgments of the utmost importance—such as when an eyewitness to a crime later tries to identify the culprit—informational social influences our perceptions. Source: Flirt/Super. Stock Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Task Importance • Results—more conformity when important Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Informational Conformity Backfires • Contagion – The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Informational Conformity Backfires • Mass psychogenic illness – The occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Southern Standard headlined a frightening and mysterious event at a local Tennessee high school. An investigation found that the “poisonings” were a case of mass psychogenic illness. Source: The Southern Standard Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Mass Psychogenic Illness and Other Forms of Conformity • Mass media – Plays a powerful role in spreading psychogenic illness • TV, radio, magazines, Internet, spread information quickly and efficiently – Middle Ages » 200 years for “dancing manias” to crisscross Europe – Has power to stop contagion • Introduce more logical explanations for ambiguous events Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? • When the situation 1. is ambiguous 2. is a crisis • When other people are experts Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When the Situation Is Ambiguous • Ambiguity is the most crucial variable. • When you are uncertain, you will be most open to influence from others. • The greater the uncertainty, the more reliance there is on others! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When the Situation Is a Crisis • Don’t have time to stop and think about action we should take – Need to act—immediately • May be scared, panicked • See how other people are responding, and do the same • Problem – The people we imitate may not be behaving rationally! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Other People Are Experts • Usually, greater expertise associated with better information – Example—Passenger who sees smoke coming out of an airplane engine will probably check the flight attendants’ reaction rather than their seatmates’ • Experts are not always reliable sources of information! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Informational Social Influence and Emergencies • Emergency = crisis situation • Often ambiguous – Sometimes “experts” present, but not always • In an emergency, the bystander is thinking: – What’s happening? What should I do? What’s everybody else doing? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
To Resist Informational Social Influence • Ask yourself critical questions. – Do other people know any more about what is going on than I do? – Is there an expert who should know more? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
To Resist Informational Social Influence • Ask yourself critical questions. – Do the actions of other people or experts seem sensible? • If I behave the way they do, will it go against: – my common sense? – my internal moral compass? – my sense of right and wrong? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted • Why do some adolescents engage in risky behavior? • Why does anyone follow the group when the behavior may even be dangerous? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted • Humans are a social species. • Other people are important to our wellbeing. • Being deprived of human contact is stressful and traumatic. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted • Normative social influence – The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted • Social norms – The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Social Approval • Asch’s Line Judgment Studies – Participants guessed which line in the right box is the same length as the line on the left. – Almost everyone gets this right—when alone. – Participants repeatedly evaluated lines. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Social Approval • Asch’s Line Judgment Studies – They heard other people also evaluating the lines. – Sometimes, everyone else gets it wrong. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 2 The Judgment Task in Asch’s Line Studies In a series of studies of normative social influence, participants judged which of the three comparison lines on the right was closest in length to the standard line on the left. The correct answer was always obvious (as it is here). However, members of the group (actually confederates) gave the wrong answer out loud. Now the participant faced a dilemma: Give the right answer and go against the whole group, or conform to their behavior and give an obviously wrong answer? (Adapted from Asch, 1956) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 3 Results of the Asch Line-Judgment Study Participants in the Asch line study showed a surprisingly high level of conformity, given how obvious it was that the group was wrong in its judgments. Seventy-six percent of the participants conformed on at least one trial; only 24% of participants never conformed at all (see bar labeled zero). Most participants conformed on one to three of the 12 trials in which the group gave the wrong answer. However, a sizable number of participants conformed to the group’s incorrect response nearly every single time (see the two bars on the right). (Adapted from Asch, 1957) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Social Approval • Classic normative reasons for conforming – Don’t want to feel peculiar – Don’t want to feel like a fool – Belief that what others think is important, even if they are strangers Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence • Usually results in public compliance without private acceptance – One goes along with the group even if he or she do not believe in the group’s actions or think the group’s actions are wrong Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Social Approval • Variation of original Asch study – Participants wrote answers on paper instead of saying them out loud • Answers were private, not public – People did not have to worry about what the group thought of them • Conformity dropped dramatically – Occurred on average of only 1. 5 of the 12 trials Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sherif’s and Asch’s Studies of Conformity Summary • Sherif – Ambiguous stimuli – Conformity occurred • Private acceptance – “need to know what’s right” Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Sherif’s and Asch’s Studies of Conformity Summary • Asch – Unambiguous stimuli – Conformity occurred • Public compliance – “need to be accepted” Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Participants in an Asch line study. The real participant is seated in the middle. He is surrounded by the experimenter’s accomplices, who have just given the wrong answer on the line task. Source: Reproduced with permission. Copyright © 2012 Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Brain Imaging (f. MRI) • When participants conformed to group (gave incorrect answer) – Vision and perception areas active in brain Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Conformity and Brain Imaging (f. MRI) • When participants disagreed (gave correct answer) – Different brain areas active • Amygdala – Negative emotions • Right caudate nucleus – modulating social behavior Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Importance of Being Accurate Revisited • What happens when it is important to people to be accurate? – These people conform less to answers of the group that are obviously wrong. • But they still conform sometimes! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Importance of Being Accurate Revisited • Conformity can occur – Even when the group is wrong – The correct answer is obvious – There are strong incentives to be accurate • People find it difficult to risk social disapproval – Even by strangers Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence • If you disregard the group norms of your friends & fail to conform: 1. Group would try to bring you “back into the fold” • Long discussions, teasing comments 2. If discussions don’t work • Friends may say negative things to you and about you, • Start to withdraw from you Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Normative Social Influence in Everyday Life • Trivial example – Fads • Fashion Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
By 2007, the Crocs fad was in full force as kids (and parents) everywhere could be found out and about in these plastic clogs with Swiss-cheese holes. Five years later, reviews are decidedly more mixed: an anti-Croc page on Facebook currently has more than 1. 6 million fans. Source: Jeff Greenberg/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Women’s Body Image • Nontrivial example – Women’s attempts to conform to cultural definitions of an attractive body • Current Western, American culture value extreme thinness in women – Not universally valued • Other cultures desire plumpness Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Women’s Body Image • As the reliability of the food supply increases, the preference for heavy-tomoderate bodies decreases. • Only in cultures with very reliable food supplies (like the United States) was the slender body type highly valued. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 4 What Is the “Ideal” Female Body Across Cultures? Researchers divided 54 cultures into groups, depending on the reliability of their food supply. They then determined what was considered the “ideal” female body in each culture. Heavy female bodies were considered the most beautiful in cultures with unreliable food supplies. As the reliability of the food supply increased, the preference for a moderate-to-heavy body type decreased. Only in cultures where food was very readily available was the slender body valued more. (Adapted from Anderson, Crawford, Nadeau, & Lindberg, 1992) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 5 The Mean Bust-to-Waist Ratios of Models in Vogue and Ladies’ Home Journal, 1901– 1981 What is considered an attractive female body changed dramatically during the twentieth century, from heavy women at the beginning of the 1900 s, to rail-thin women during the 1920 s, to somewhat heavier and more-curvaceous women during the 1940 s and 1950 s, to a return to very thin women in the 1960 s and thereafter. (Adapted from Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Women’s Body Image • Japanese women – Change in standards for physical attractiveness since WWII – Preferred look has taken on a “Westernized” element • long-legged, thin bodies – “hattou shin beauty” – Feel strong, normative pressure to be thin Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Women’s Body Image • Informational social influence – Women learn what body type considered attractive in their culture (and how they compare) • Family, friends, media Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Women’s Body Image • Sororities (Crandall, 1988) – Develop group norms regarding eating disorders • Normative social influence – Binge eating – new members conformed to their sorority’s group norms Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Men’s Body Image • Cultural norms for men’s bodies have changed over time – Ideal male body is now more muscular • Men feel pressure to achieve an ideal body similar to pressure felt by women Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Social Influence and Men’s Body Image • Male ideal body – “Six-pack” • Increasing use of risky substances to achieve muscular physique – Steroids – Ephedrine Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Has the American cultural ideal of the male body changed over time? Harrison Pope and his colleagues (1999) measured the waist, chest, and biceps of the most popular action-figure toys of the last three decades. The researchers found that the toy figures had grown much more muscular over time, far exceeding the muscularity of even the largest human bodybuilders. The researchers suggest that such unrealistic images of the male body may contribute to body-image disorders in boys. Source: Richard Heyes/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? • Social Impact Theory – The idea that conforming to social influence depends on: 1. Strength – Importance of group to person 2. Immediacy – Closeness in time and space 3. Number of people in the group Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? • More conformity to normative pressures when group is: – More important – More immediate • BUT, number (group size) operates differently Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 6 Effects of Group Size on Conformity Asch varied the size of the unanimous majority in his study and found that once the majority numbered four, adding more people had little influence on conformity. (Adapted from Asch, 1955) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When the Group Size is Three or More • Conformity increases as the number of people in the group increases. – BUT, once the group reaches 4 or 5 other people, conformity does not increase much. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When the Group is Important • Normative pressures are much stronger when there is a cost to losing the group – People whose friendship, love, and respect we value • Highly cohesive groups can make less logical decisions – No one wants to upset relationships Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When One Has No Allies in the Group • Variation on original Asch study – 6 of 7 confederates selected incorrect line instead of unanimous • Participant had an “ally” – Person not alone in dissenting – Conformity dropped to 6% of the trials (compared to 32% when the person was the only dissenter) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When One Has No Allies in the Group • U. S. Supreme Court – Most common decision ratio • Unanimous, 9 -0 vote – Least common decision ratio • 8 -1 (single dissenter) – It is difficult to be the lone dissenter! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
When the Group’s Culture is Collectivistic • Greater conformity in collectivist cultures – Asch’s line judgment task • Norway more conformity than France Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The extent to which conformity is valued varies across cultures. In the Opening Ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, a worldwide television audience was mesmerized by the sight of 2, 008 drummers performing in perfect synchronization. Source: Aflo Foto Agency/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Gender and Conformity • Eagly and Carli (1981) • Meta-analysis of 145 studies of the degree of group influence that included more than 21, 000 participants – Gender differences very small • On average, men are somewhat less prone to being influenced than women Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Gender Differences in Conformity • Eagly Carli (1981) – Gender of the person conducting conformity studies makes a difference • Male researchers more likely than female researchers to find that men were less influenceable Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Dark Side of Social Influence—Propaganda • Propaganda – Systematic attempt to manipulate thoughts and behavior of others • E. g. , Nazi Germany – Informational social influence • Incorrect information – But builds on pre-existing beliefs – Normative social influence • Rejection, ostracism for failure to accept beliefs Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
How to Resist Inappropriate Normative Social Influence • Be aware that it exists. • Take action. – Try to find an ally. • Conforming most of the time, “earns” occasional deviation without consequences. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Idiosyncrasy Credits • The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave defiantly without retribution from the group. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Minority Influence When the Few Influence the Many • Minority influence – The case where a minority of group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Minority Influence When the Few Influence the Many • Consistency is key – People with minority views must express the same view over time • Members of the minority opinion must agree with one another Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Using Social Influence to Promote Beneficial Behavior • Cialdini and colleagues • Can use social norms to induce people to conform to correct, socially-approved behavior – First, must identify the norm that is operating in the situation Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Injunctive Versus Descriptive Norms • Injunctive norms – People’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others. • Descriptive norms – People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Invoking conformity to social norms can be used in the effort to address societal problems such as littering. Source: Craig Steven Thrasher/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 7 The Effect of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms on Littering The data for the control group (left) indicate that 37% to 38% of people litter a handbill found on their car windshield whether the environment (a parking lot) is littered or clean. When a descriptive norm is made salient, littering decreases significantly only in the clean environment (middle). When an injunctive norm is made salient, littering decreases significantly in both types of environment, indicating that injunctive norms are more consistently effective at changing behavior. (Adapted from Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Using Norms to Change Behavior: Boomerang Effect • Invoking descriptive norms may backfire – Depending on pre-existing behavior • E. g. , college binge drinking, energy use • Invoking descriptive + injunctive most successful – Example—energy use (Schultz et al) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Obedience to Authority • Obedience is a social norm – Universally valued • Without obedience, would be chaos • We are socialized to obey legitimate authority figures – Internalize social norm of obedience • Obey even if authority figure isn’t present – E. g. , traffic lights Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Obedience and Authority Figures Video Click on the screenshot to see an example of misguided obedience to authority. Back to Directory Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Obedience to Authority • Obedience can have serious, tragic consequences – Obey the orders of an authority figure to hurt or even kill other human beings Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Obedience to Authority • The Milgram studies – Most famous series of studies in social psychology Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Imagine that You Were a Participant • When you arrive at the laboratory, you meet another participant, a 47 -yearold, somewhat overweight, pleasantlooking fellow. • The experimenter, wearing a white lab coat, explains that one of you will play the role of a teacher and the other a learner. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Imagine that You Were a Participant • You draw a slip of paper out of a hat and discover that you will be the teacher. • Your job is to teach the other participant a list of word pairs (e. g. , blue–box, nice–day) and then test him on the list. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Imagine that You Were a Participant • The experimenter instructs you to deliver an electric shock to the learner whenever he makes a mistake because the purpose of the study is to examine the effects of punishment on learning. • The learner makes many mistakes. • The experimenter instructs you to keep shocking the learner. • What would you do? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram’s Studies • How many people do you think would continue to obey the experimenter and increase the levels of shock until they had delivered the maximum amount, 450 volts? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Left: The shock generator used in Milgram’s research. Right: The learner (an accomplice of the experimenter) is strapped into the chair, and electrodes are attached to his arm. (Adapted from Milgram, 1974) Source: From the film Obedience copyright © 1968 by Stanley Milgram. Copyright renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram, distributed by Penn State Media Sales. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram’s Studies • Estimate about 1% of the population – Psychology majors at Yale University – Middle-class adults – Panel of psychiatrists made similar predictions Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 8. 8 Transcript of the learner’s protests in Milgram’s obedience study and of the prods used by the experimenter to compel people to continue giving shocks. (Adapted from Milgram, 1963, 1974) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram’s Studies • Average maximum shock delivered was 360 volts • 62. 5% of participants delivered 450 volt shock Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram’s Studies • 80% of participants – Continued giving the shocks even after the learner cried out in pain, said heart was bothering him • Note—no learners were harmed in the making of Milgram’s experiments! – The learner was Milgram’s confederate, pretending to get shocked. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Role of Normative Social Influence • Don’t want to disappoint experimenter • Insistent experimenter – Difficult to say no • Variations on original study – Other teachers (confederates) refused to continue – Only 10% gave maximum shock • Compared to 62. 5% in original study Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram and Obedience Video Click on the screenshot to watch a replication of Milgram's experiment forty years later using both men and women. Back to Directory Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Role of Normative Social Influence • Confusing situation for participants – Competing social norms • Obey authority versus Don’t harm others • Experimenter is an expert – Look to experimenter for information on how to respond • Follow orders of expert Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Role of Normative Social Influence • Variations on original study – Non-expert gives instructions about shock level • 20% of participants gave maximum shock – Compared to 62. 5% in original study – Two experts disagree about continuing • All participants stopped obeying Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Milgram’s Studies: Other Reasons We Obey 1. Conform to wrong norm – Fast-paced nature of experiment • No time to reflect 2. Self-justification – Shock levels increased in small increments • Internal pressure to continue to obey 3. Loss of a personal responsibility Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Summary and Review • Types of Conformity • Classic Studies of Conformity and Obedience • Reasons Why People Conform • How to Resist Conformity • Inducing Conformity Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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