Chapter 7 The Grounds for Arguments Grounds Evidence

Chapter 7 ]The Grounds for Arguments

Grounds �Evidence, support, proof/foundation for claim �Basis for claims may be 1 of 2 types �Artistic Proof-reasoning, analysis, inspiration of advocate-personal knowledge �Primary Research-original, first hand findings �Interviews, surveys, questionnaires, field studies �Inartistic Proof-someone else’s words, ideas, numbers, examples used as proof �Secondary Research

Artistic Proof �Aristotle identified 3 types of artistic proof-3 ways we gain support for argument �Logos �Pathos �Ethos

Premise �Premises are often used as grounds for a claim-as proof �A point accepted without the requirement of additional support-common knowledge �Premises used to support a claim are based on 2 types of knowledge �Personal Knowledge �Cultural Knowledge

�Personal Knowledge �Type of artistic proof �What we know to be true because of first hand experience �Cultural Knowledge �Shared values and shared truths-common knowledge �Come from stories we tell and hear �Can be codified into the rules, principles, laws we follow �Reinforced through rituals-repeated behavior patterns � Ex. Graduation ceremony=reinforces value in discipline, education, etc. �Reinforced through symbols �Presumption-audience believes premises until convinced otherwise

Testing Premises �Evaluating the use of premises in support of claim requires considering 3 things � 1. Is premise truly shared by audience-majority � 2. Are there contradictory premises � 3. Are there discrepancies between our public and private beliefs �Ex. We frown upon racism in US, but that doesn’t mean racist people don’t exist in US

Supporting a Premise/Claim/Proposition

�Hard Evidence �Includes factual examples and statistics �Soft Evidence �Rests on opinion or inference. �Hypothetical illustrations, descriptions, explanations, analogies �Variety �Accuracy-credibility �Relevance

1. Definitions § Conveying info through giving meaning. § Focuses on addressing the meaning of a new or complex concept § Defining can take at least 5 forms • 1 -operational definition • 2 -definition by negation • 3 -definition by example • 4 -definition by synonym • 5 -definition by etymology

2. Examples �Examples-illustrate, describe, or represent ideas+ aid understanding -Brief example -Extended example -Hypothetical example

3. Explanations �Explanation-involves providing reasons or causes and demonstrating relationships, & offering interpretation and analysis

4. Testimony • Testimony-first hand findings, eye-witness accounts and opinions • Expert testimony-provided by professionals trained to evaluate or report on a given topic • Credibility important-competence Ex. According to Dr. Lee Jones from Harvard Medical School, people with diabetes who exceed the consumption of 2 eggs per week increase their chances of heart disease. NOT REAL

�-Lay testimony-evidence provided by non- experts (eye-witness)-credibility is still important According to one student who witnessed the shootings at Virginia Tech University, the shooter was …………(description)

5. Statistics �quantified evidence-summarizes numerical data �percentage, average, frequency, mean, median, mode - Ø ex. Smoking increases one’s chances of getting lung cancer. 75% of people who get lung cancer are smokers. Ø present ethically Ø avoid cherry-picking Ø Underreporting Ø Overreporting Ø Is statistic coming from random sample

6. Facts �Facts-documented occurrences that include events, dates, times, etc -people usually require evidence or facts in order to accept something as true

Citing Sources �Documenting Source Material-cite sources -keep track of where you get everything (working bibliography) -cite within and at the end of work (reference page) Pg. 140 �MLA and ABA samples in back of book