Chapter 7 Taphonomy Experimental Archaeology and Ethnoarchaeology Outline

Chapter 7 Taphonomy, Experimental Archaeology, and Ethnoarchaeology

Outline Middle-Level Research: What Is It? Taphonomy Experimental Archaeology Ethnoarchaeology

Middle-Level Research Archaeological sites contain only material remains, behavior must be inferred from these remains. The principle of uniformitarianism asserts that the processes now operating to modify the earth’s surface are the same as those that operated in the geological past. Observation of the contemporary world provides the information necessary to infer past human behavior and natural processes from observations on archaeological objects.

Some Bones of Contention Most faunal studies begin by considering the relative frequencies of animal bones in a site. Bones may disappear due to various reasons. Archaeologists face problems where several competing hypotheses accounting for the same body of facts are reasonable. Archaeologists must concentrate on finding the material consequences of activities. Middle-level research can help bridge arguments that breathe behavioral life into the objects of the past.

Analogy vs. Middle-Level Theory Analogy- noting similarities between two entities and inferring from that similarity that an additional attribute of one (the ethnographic case) is also true of the other (the archaeological case). Middle-level theory is a particularly rigorous analogy.

Analogy An analogy notes similarities between two entities and infers an additional attribute of one is also true of the other. An archaeological object has attributes A, B, C, and D. The ethnographic analogy is characterized by A, B, C, and D and has the function E. Therefore, the archaeological object also has the function E.

Formal Analogies Rely on similarities in form between the archaeological and ethnographic cases, regardless of whether the analogies come form the same culture. Strengthened if many ethnographic cases demonstrate the same pattern and the archaeological and ethnographic cases have many attributes in common.

Relational Analogies justified on the basis of close cultural continuity between the archaeological and ethnographic cases or similarity in general cultural form. Relational analogies can rely not just on cultural continuity but also on “natural” relationships, causal linkages between attributes of a thing and the inference to be made from it.

Middle-Level Theory as Powerful Analogy Tries to make an analogy more certain by explaining why there is a necessary relationship between an object’s or feature’s attributes and an inference made from those attributes. Relying on the principle of uniformitarianism, middle-level theory attempts to explain why an inference should necessarily be true.

Pueblo Indians Example: Kivas & Sipapu A Pueblo ceremonial structure that is usually round (but may be square or rectangular) and semisubterranean. They appear in early Pueblo sites and perhaps even in the earlier (pre-AD 700) pithouse villages. http: //www. ratical. org/southwest/SHsite. Guide. html

Sipapu A Hopi word that loosely translates as “place of emergence. ” The original sipapu is the place where the Hopi are said to have emerged into this world from the underworld. Sipapus are also small pits in kivas through which communication with the supernatural world takes place.

Taphonomy The study of how organisms become part of the fossil record. Archaeologist use the term to refer to the study of how natural processes contribute to the formation of archaeological sites. Taphonomy is an important aspect of the study of site formation processes because it considers how human behavior and natural processes incorporate bones and plants into sites. Example: How large animal carcasses decompose on an African savanna. How long does it take the carcass to disarticulate? Which bones separate first? Which ones are carried away by carnivores? And how far?

Taphonomy at the Hudson-Meng Bison Bonebed An area in northwest Nebraska, where the remains of about 500 bison and 21 spear points were found in an area 1, 000 m 2. AMS dates indicate the site is about 9, 500 radiocarbon years old. Paleontologist Larry Agenbroad was the first to dig at Hudson-Meng, in the 1970 s.

Making Inferences Agenbroad made inferences about: the presence of humans hunting strategy group size food storage The inferences were based on patterning, the missing skull tops, in the skeletal assemblage of the bison.

Making Inferences Agenbroad inferred human behavior: Plains Indians broke bison skulls open to remove brains and use them in tanning hides. The hunters drove the bison over a cliff, then dragged 500 of them to a processing area. The ancient hunters were a large group and with a sophisticated storage system.

Agenbroad’s Inferences Formal analogy Relied on the similarity in bison skull form (the missing top of the cranium), and similarities between the site and documented butchering practices. Relational analogy Took a known practice of Plains Indians and extrapolated back in time to the ancestors of Plains Indians.

Taphonomic Perspective Could a natural process create the same pattern? Why are there no cut marks on the bones? In butchering, it is likely that a knife would have cut to bone, but only carnivore tooth marks appear on the bones. The skeletal remains are in anatomical position as if the bison had died there and were buried undisturbed.

Hudson-Meng: Todd/Rapson Hypothesis A summer storm sparked a prairie fire that drove the bison herd into the swale for protection. The fire could have jumped the swale and asphyxiated the bison. The spear points were probably discarded or lost long after the bison died, decomposed, and became buried. This hypothesis remains to be tested.

Hudson-Meng: Todd/Rapson Hypothesis Todd and Rapson reconstructed how taphonomic processes created the pattern of incomplete crania: As the body collapses into a pile of bone, it continues to trap sediment until it is mostly buried, although the skull’s top remains exposed. The cranium weathers and the small bone fragments that flake off are blown away by the wind.

Taphonomic Processes, at the Hudson-Meng Site

Taphonomy and Uniformitarianism Incomplete crania, the basis of Agenbroad’s analogy, are readily explained by natural processes, not human behavior. This is middle-level theory because we understand why bison bones disarticulate, become buried, and weather the way they do. The principle of uniformitarianism applies here because ancient animals had the same anatomy as the animals observed in taphonomic studies.

Characteristics of Middle. Level Theory Middle-level theory creates bridging arguments that link material remains to human behavior or natural processes. It uses the structure of analogy, but adds the principle of uniformitarianism. The principle of uniformitarianism argues that relationships observed in the present were true of the past because they are inherent to the objects or actions being observed. The principle of uniformitarianism is essential to giving middle-level theory its power of inference.

Experimental Archaeology Experimental archaeology is useful for establishing how things might have been made in the past or discovering “mechanical” relationships between behavior and material remains, such as tool use and microwear.

How Were Stone Tools Made? Heat-treatment – The flint knapping properties of stone tool raw material are improved by heat. Flake – A thin, sharp sliver of stone removed from a core during the knapping process. Core – A piece of stone that is worked. Flute- distinctive channel on the faces of Folsom and Clovis projectile points formed by removal of one or more flakes from the point’s base.

Experimental Archaeology and Uniformitarianism Archaeologists have used replicative experiments in several ways and a variety of methods will work successfully. Experimental archaeology results on Folsom spear manufactured results indicate the following: It is difficult to flute points, it takes practice. Fluting also results in high breakage rate. Fluting appears to have no specific function. The uniformitarian elements of experimental archaeology often comes in the guise of telling us what could or could not have happened in the past.

Ethnoarchaeology is the sutdy of contemporary peoples to determine how human behavior is translated into the archaeological record. Ethnoarchaeology links human behavior with archaeologically observable material remains.

Binford Takes Off for Points North If generalizations cannot cover contemporary behavior, then they cannot be used to interpret the evidence of ancient behavior. To help solve this inferential problem, Binford conducted ethnoarchaeological research in the 1970 s among the Nunamiut Eskimo of Alaska. A powerful tool for creating middle-level theory when: It focuses on aspects of ethnographic data that are archaeologically observable. Attempts to explain why a relationship between behavior and archaeologically observable remains should necessarily hold true.

Ethnoarchaeology in Madagascar Kelly wanted to discern different levels of nomadism archaeologically. He looked for an ethnographic situation in which he could see variation in nomadism and study its material consequences. Mikea live in four major kinds of settlements that differ in how long they are occupied. By recording variables (trash distribution, number of postholes per house, etc. ), we could place a new settlement into one of the four categories with a high degree of accuracy.

Mikea Habitations

Summary of Differences in Mikea Settlements Settlement Type Distance to House Size Trash (meters) Feature Diversity Villages Various 10 -40+ High Forest Hamlets small 4 -9 Medium Seasonal Hamlets small 3 -4 Mediumlow Foraging camps Lean-tos, if present 1 -2 Low

Ethnoarchaeology and Uniformitarianism The principle of uniformitarianism is tougher to apply to ethnoarchaeology because human behavior is anything but mechanical. Ian Hodder suggests to consider the symbolic meanings of material culture to appreciate how it will be treated as trash. The principles of human behaviors suggested in ethnoarchaeolgical studies could provisionally be taken to create and test hypotheses.

Relevant Videos Dig This: Seetha Reddy-Ehtnoarchaeology https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=n. IHic. RZo. MXA Experimental archaeologyhttps: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=q 1 h. Gmi. ZRA 5 I Flintknapping- Beginners https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=wyz. NIa-U 5 Nc

Quick Quiz

1. Experimental archaeology is a type of middle -level research that studies the role of natural processes in the archaeological record. A. True B. False

Answer: B Experimental archaeology uses controlled experiments to replicate the past and look for links between human behavior and archaeological consequences. Taphonomy studies the role of natural processes in the archaeological record.

2. The Principle of _______ asserts that the processes now operating to modify the earth’s surface are the same processes that operated long ago in the geological past.

Answer: Uniformitarianism The Principle of Uniformitarianism asserts that the processes now operating to modify the earth’s surface are the same processes that operated long ago in the geological past.

3. A kiva is: A. A Hopi word that loosely translates as “place of happiness. ” B. A Pueblo ceremonial structure that is usually round and semi-subterranean. C. The place where the Sioux are said to have emerged into this world from the underworld. D. All of the above.

Answer: B A kiva is a Pueblo ceremonial structure that is usually round and semi-subterranean.

4. A _____ analogy is justified by similarities in the formal attributes of archaeological and ethnographic objects and features. A ______ analogy is justified on the basis of close cultural continuity between the archaeological and ethnographic cases or similarity in general cultural form.

Answer: formal; relational A formal analogy is justified by similarities in the formal attributes of archaeological and ethnographic objects and features. A relational analogy is justified on the basis of close cultural continuity between the archaeological and ethnographic cases or similarity in general cultural form.

5. ______ study living societies, observing artifacts, features, and material remains while they still exist in their systemic, behavioral contexts and link human behavior with archaeologically observable material remains.

Answer: ethnoarchaeologists Ethnoarchaeologists study living societies, observing artifacts, features, and material remains while they still exist in their systemic, behavioral contexts and link human behavior with archaeologically observable material remains.