Chapter 7 Learning Power Point Presentation by Jim

Types of Learning Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction Operant conditioning: changing behavior choices in response to consequences Cognitive learning: acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience

Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning How it works: after repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence, we associate those stimuli with each other. Result: our natural response to one stimulus now can be triggered by the new, predictive stimulus. After Repetition Stimulus: See lightning Response: Cover ears to avoid sound Stimulus 1: See lightning Stimulus 2: Hear thunder Here, our response to thunder becomes associated with lightning.

Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning § Child associates his “response” (behavior) with consequences. § Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying “please”) which were followed by desirable results (cookie). § Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling “gimme!”) which were followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert).

Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors and information mentally, rather than by direct experience. Cognitive learning occurs: 1. by observing events and the behavior of others. 2. by using language to acquire information about events experienced by others.

Behaviorism § The term behaviorism was used by John B. Watson (1878 -1958), a proponent of classical conditioning, as well as by B. F. Skinner (1904 -1990), a leader in research about operant conditioning. § Both scientists believed the mental life was much less important than behavior as a foundation for psychological science. § Both foresaw applications in controlling human behavior: Skinner conceived of utopian communities. Watson went into advertising.

Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery While studying salivation in dogs, Ivan Pavlov found that salivation from eating food was eventually triggered by what should have been neutral stimuli such as: § just seeing the food. § seeing the dish. § seeing the person who brought the food. § just hearing that person’s footsteps.

Before Conditioning Neutral stimulus: a stimulus which does not trigger a response Neutral stimulus (NS) No response

Before Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus and response: a stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US): yummy dog food Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates

During Conditioning The bell/tone (N. S. ) is repeatedly presented with the food (U. S. ). Neutral stimulus (NS) Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR): dog salivates

After Conditioning The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone (neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus). Conditioned (formerly neutral) stimulus Did you follow the changes? The UR and the CR are the same response, triggered by different events. The difference is whether conditioning was necessary for the response to happen. The NS and the CS are the same stimulus. The difference is whether the stimulus triggers the conditioned response. Conditioned response: dog salivates

Find the US, UR, NS, CR in the following: Your romantic partner always uses the same shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makes you feel happy. The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks. The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit, ” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt, ” you cringe in fear. You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.

Higher-Order Conditioning § If the dog becomes conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, can the dog be conditioned to salivate when a light flashes…by associating it with the BELL instead of with food? § Yes! The conditioned response can be transferred from the US to a CS, then from there to another CS. § This is higher-order conditioning: turning a NS into a CS by associating it with another CS. A man who was conditioned to associate joy with coffee, could then learn to associate joy with a restaurant if he was served coffee there every time he walked in to the restaurant.

Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning/conditioning. What gets “acquired”? The association between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US). How can we tell that acquisition has occurred? The UR now gets triggered by a CS (drooling now gets triggered by a bell). Timing For the association to be acquired, the neutral stimulus (NS) needs to repeatedly appear before the unconditioned stimulus (US)…about a half-second before, in most cases. The bell must come right before the food. 14

Acquisition and Extinction § The strength of a CR grows with conditioning. § Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response. If the US (food) stops appearing with the CS (bell), the CR decreases.

Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the CR] After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished: • following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to a spontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite a lack of further conditioning). • if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR becomes extinct again.

Generalization and Discrimination Please notice the narrow, psychological definition. Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool at bells of a certain pitch; slightly different pitches did not trigger drooling. Discrimination refers to the Generalization refers to the learned ability to only tendency to have respond to a specific stimuli, conditioned responses preventing generalization. triggered by related stimuli. Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogs to drool when rubbed; they then also drooled when scratched. MORE stuff makes you drool. LESS stuff makes you drool.

Ivan Pavlov’s Legacy Insights about conditioning in general • It occurs in all creatures. • It is related to biological drives and responses. Insights about science • Learning can be studied objectively, by quantifying actions and isolating elements of behavior. Insights from specific applications • Substance abuse involves conditioned triggers, and these triggers (certain places, events) can be avoided or associated with new responses.

John B. Watson and Classical Conditioning: Playing with Fear § In 1920, 9 -month-old Little Albert was not afraid of rats. § John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clanged a steel bar every time a rat was presented to Albert. § Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear to other soft and furry things. § Watson prided himself in his ability to shape people’s emotions. He later went into advertising.

Before Conditioning Little Albert Experiment No fear NS: rat UCS: steel bar hit with hammer Natural reflex: fear

Little Albert Experiment UCS: steel bar hit with hammer NS: rat During Conditioning Natural reflex: fear

Little Albert Experiment NS: rat Conditioned reflex: fear After Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning involves adjusting to the consequences of our behaviors, so we can easily learn to do more of what works, and less of what doesn’t work. Examples §We may smile more at work after this repeatedly gets us bigger tips. §We learn how to ride a bike using the strategies that don’t make us crash. Response: balancing a ball How it works: An act of chosen behavior (a “response”) is followed by a reward or punitive feedback from the environment. Results: §Reinforced behavior is more likely to be tried again. §Punished behavior is less likely to be chosen in the future. Consequence: receiving food Behavior strengthened

Operant and Classical Conditioning are Different Forms of Associative Learning Operant conditioning: Classical conditioning: § § involves operant behavior, chosen behaviors which “operate” on the environment § these behaviors become these reactions to associated with consequences unconditioned stimuli (US) which punish (decrease) or become associated with reinforce (increase) the neutral (then conditioned) operant behavior stimuli There is a contrast in the process of conditioning. involves respondent behavior, reflexive, automatic reactions such as fear or craving The experimental (neutral) stimulus repeatedly precedes the respondent behavior, and eventually triggers that behavior. § The experimental (consequence) stimulus repeatedly follows the operant behavior, and eventually punishes or reinforces that behavior.

B. F. Skinner: Behavioral Control B. F. Skinner saw potential for exploring and using Edward Thorndike’s principles much more broadly. He wondered: § how can we more carefully measure the effect of consequences on chosen behavior? § what else can creatures be taught to do by controlling consequences? § what happens when we change the timing of reinforcement? B. F. Skinner trained pigeons to play ping pong, and guide a video game missile.

B. F. Skinner: The Operant Chamber § B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled methods of studying conditioning. § The operant chamber, often called “the Skinner box, ” allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in response to different rates of reinforcement. Recording device Bar or lever that an animal presses, randomly at first, later for reward Food/water dispenser to provide the reward