CHAPTER 7 Elemen Dasar Perencanaan dan Pengambilan Keputusan

Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: – Summarize the function of decision making and the planning process. – Discuss the purpose of organizational goals, and identify different kinds of goals. Discuss who sets goals, and describe how to manage multiple goals. – Identify different kinds of organizational plans, note the time frames for planning, discuss who plans, and describe contingency planning. – Discuss how tactical plans are developed. – Describe the basic types of operational plans used by organizations. – Identify the major barriers to goal setting and planning, how organizations overcome those barriers, and how to use goals to implement plans. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 2

Chapter Outline • Decision Making and the Planning Process • Organizational Goals – – Purposes of Goals Kinds of Goals Responsibilities for Goals Managing Multiple Goals • Organizational Planning – Kinds of Organizational Planning – Time Frames for Planning – Responsibilities for Planning – Contingency Planning Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. • Tactical Planning – Developing Tactical Plans – Executing Tactical Plans • Operational Planning – Single-Use Plans – Standing Plans • Managing Goal-Setting and Planning Processes – Barriers to Goal Setting and Planning – Overcoming the Barriers – Using Goals to Implement Plans 7– 3

Decision Making and the Planning Process • Proses perencanaan Konteks lingkungan • maksud Misi organisasi • Dasar pikiran • nilai • Tujuan strategi Tujuan taktis Tujuan operasional arah Rencana strategis Rencana taktis Rencana operasional Figure 7. 1 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 4

Organizational Goals • Maksud dari Tujuan : – Memberikan petunjuk dan kesatuan arah untuk orang-orang dalam organisasi. – Praktik penetapan tujuan sangat mempengaruhi aspek lain dari perencanaan. – Tujuan dapat berperan sebagai sumber motivasi bagi karyawan organisasi. – Tujuan memberikan suatu mekanisme yang efektif untuk evaluasi dan pengendalian. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 5

Kinds of Goals • By Level – Misi : suatu pernyataan mengenai maksud fundamental organisasi. – Strategic goals : dirancang untuk dan oleh manajemen puncak organsasi berfokus pada persoalan yang luas dan umum. – Tactical goals : dirancang oleh dan untuk manajer menengah, fokus bagaimana mengoperasionalisasikan tindakan yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan strategis. – Operational goals : dirancang oleh dan untuk manajer di tingkat lebih rendah. Fokus pada persoalan jangka pendek yang dihubungkan dengan tujuan taktis. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 6

Kinds of Goals (Cont’d) • By Area – Organisasi juga menetapkan tujuan untuk berbagai bidang yang berbeda. • By Time Frame – Tujuan berdasarkan kerangka waktu yang berbeda yaitu jangka panjang, jangka menengah, jangka pendek dan kerangka waktu yang ekspisit. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 7

Organizational Goals (cont’d) • Kinds of Goals for a Regional Fast. Food Chain Mission: Our mission is to operate a chain of restaurants that will prepare and serve high-quality food on a timely basis and at reasonable prices. Strategic Goals President and CEO ï Provide 14 percent return to investors for at least ten years ï Start or purchase new restaurant chain within five years ï Negotiate new labor contract this year Tactical Goals Vice president ñoperations ï Open 150 new restaurants during next ten years ï Decrease food-container costs by 15 percent during next five years ï Decrease average customer wait by thirty seconds this year Vice president ñmarketing ï Increase per store sales 5 percent per year for ten years ï Target and attract two new market segments during next five years ï Develop new promotional strategy for next year Vice president ñfinance ï Keep corporate debt to no more than 20 percent of liquid assets for next ten years ï Revise computerized accounting system within five years ï Earn 9 percent on excess cash this year Operational Goals Restaurant manager ï Implement employee incentive system within one year ï Decrease waste by 5 percent this year ï Hire and train new assistant manager Advertising director ï Develop regional advertising campaigns within one year ï Negotiate 5 percent lower advertising rates next year ï Implement this year ís promotional strategy Accounting manager ï Split accounts receivable/payable functions from other areas within two years ï Computerize payroll system for each restaurant this year ï Pay all invoices within thirty days Figure 7. 2 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 8

Responsibilities of Setting Goals • Who Sets Goals? – Semua manajer seharusnya terlibat dalam proses penetapan tujuan. – Setiap manajer pada umumnya bertanggung jawab untuk menetapkan tujuan yang berhubungan dengan tingkatnya dalam organisasi. • Managing Multiple Goals – Menyeimbangkan dan merekonsiliasi kemungkinan konflik antar tujuan yang satu dengan tujuan yang lain. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 9

Kinds of Organizational Plans • Strategic Plans – Rencana umum yang mendasari keputusan alokasi sumber daya, prioritas dan langkah-langkah tindakan yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan strategis. • Tactical Plans – Melibatkan manajemen tingkat atas dan menengah, jangka waktu lebih singkat dibandingkan rencana strategis. • Operational Plans – Menitikberatkan pada pelaksanaan rencana taktis untuk mencapai tujuan oprasional. dikembangkan oleh manajer tingkat menengah dan tingkat bawah. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 10

Time Frames for Planning • The Time Dimension of Planning – is based on the principle of commitment. Planning must provide sufficient time to fulfill the managerial commitments involved. • Long-range Plans – cover present and future strategic issues; normally extend beyond five years in the future. • Intermediate Plans – usually cover from 1 to 5 years and parallel tactical plans. – are the principal focus of organizational planning efforts. • Short-range Plans – have a time frame of one year or less. – include action plans and reaction (contingency) plans. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 11

Responsibilities for Planning • Planning Staff – Planning staff personnel gather information, coordinate planning activities, and take a broader view than individual managers. • Planning Task Force – Created when the organization wants a special circumstance addressed. • Board of Directors – Establishes corporate mission and strategy. May engage in strategic planning • Chief Executive Officer – Usually serves as president or chair of the board of directors. Has a major role in the planning process and implements the strategy. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 12

Responsibilities for Planning (cont’d) • Executive Committee – Composed of top executives within the organization. Meet regularly for input to the CEO and review strategic plans. • Line Management – Persons with formal authority and responsibility for management of the organization. Help to formulate strategy by providing information. Responsible for executing the plans developed by top management. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 13

Contingency Planning • Contingency is the determination of alternative courses of action to be taken if an intended plan is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate. These plans help managers to cope with uncertainty and change. Ongoing planning process Action point 1 Action point 2 Action point 3 Action point 4 Develop plan, Implement plan and Specify indicators Successfully complete considering formally identify for the contingency plan or contingency events and develop plan contingency plans for each possible event Monitor contingency event indicators and implement contingency plan if necessary Figure 7. 3 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 14

Tactical Planning • Developing and Executing Tactical Plans Developing tactical plans Executing tactical plans • Recognize and understand • Evaluate each course of action overarching strategic plans and tactical goals • Specify relevant resource and time issues • Recognize and identify human resource commitments in light of its goal • Obtain and distribute information and resources • Monitor horizontal and vertical communication and integration of activities • Monitor ongoing activities for goal achievement Figure 7. 4 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 15

Types of Operational Plans Table 7. 1 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All

Barriers to Goal Setting and Planning • As part of managing the goal-setting and planning process, managers must understand the barriers that can disrupt them. Managers must also know how to overcome them. Table 7. 2 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 17

Using Goals to Implement Plans • A formal goal-setting process such as management by objectives (MBO) is an effective technique for integrating goal setting and planning by giving subordinates a voice and clarifying what they are expected to accomplish. Starting the formal goal-setting program Establishment of organizational goals and plans Collaborative goal setting and planning Communicating organizational goals and plans Periodic review Evaluation Meeting Verifiable goals and clear plans Counseling Resources Figure 7. 5 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 7– 18

Using Goals to Implement Plans: The Effectiveness of Formal Goal Setting • Strengths (Success) – Improved employee motivation – Enhances communication – Fosters more objective performance appraisals – Focuses attention on appropriate goals and plans – Helps identify managerial talent – Provides a systematic management philosophy – Facilitates control of the organization Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. • Weaknesses (Failure) – Poor implementation of the goal setting process – Lack of top-management support for goal setting – Delegation of the goal-setting process to lower levels – Overemphasis on quantitative goals – Too much paperwork and record keeping – Managerial resistance to goal setting 7– 19