Chapter 7 Attitudes and Attitude Changes Influencing Thoughts

Chapter 7 Attitudes and Attitude Changes: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings Slides prepared by Jo. Nell Strough, Ph. D. & Philip Lemaster, M. A. West Virginia University Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Multimedia Directory Slide 29 Implicit Attitudes Video Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

People have begun offering their bodies as venues for advertisers. A Utah woman, shown here, received $10, 000 to advertise Golden Palace casino on her forehead. She plans to usethe money to send her son to private school. Source: AP Photo/Deseret Morning News, Keith Johnson Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Advertising Can Have Powerful Effects • Example – Until early 20 th century, men bought 99% of cigarettes sold • Advertisers began targeting women – In 1955 • Twice as many male as female smokers in the USA – In 2004 • 23% of adult men smoked • 19% of adult women. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Nature and Origin of Attitudes • People are not neutral observers of the world. – They evaluate what they encounter. – They form attitudes. Attitudes Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Nature and Origin of Attitudes • Attitudes are made up of three components: – Affective • Emotional reaction – Behavioral • Actions or observable behavior – Cognitive • Thoughts and beliefs Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Nature and Origin of Attitudes • Example—attitudes about cars – Affective • Perhaps feel excitement about getting a new car • U. S. autoworker examining a new foreignmade model, may feel anger and resentment Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Nature and Origin of Attitudes • Example—attitudes about cars – Behavioral • Test-drive the car and actually buy it – Cognitive reactions • Admire hybrid engine and fuel efficiency Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Where Do Attitudes Come From? • Genetic origins? – Identical twins share more attitudes than fraternal twins • E. g. , similar attitudes about jazz music – Indirect function of our genes • Temperament, personality Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Where Do Attitudes Come From? • Social experiences – Not all attitudes are created equally. – Though all attitudes have affective, cognitive, and behavioral components, any given attitude can be based more on one type of experience than another. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Cognitively Based Attitude • An attitude based primarily on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object. • Sometimes our attitudes are based primarily on the relevant facts. – Example—a car • How many miles to the gallon does it get? • Does it have side-impact air bags? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Affectively Based Attitude • An attitude based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Affectively Based Attitude • Sometimes we simply like a car, regardless of how many miles to the gallon it gets. • Occasionally we even feel great about something or someone in spite of having negative beliefs. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Affectively Based Attitude • Affectively based attitudes don’t come from examining facts – Where do they come from? • Values – Example—religious, moral beliefs • Sensory reaction – Example—liking the taste of something • Aesthetic reaction – Example—admiring lines and color of a car • Conditioning Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Classical Conditioning • The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Classical Conditioning • A stimulus that elicits an emotional response is paired with a neutral stimulus • Neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Operant Conditioning • The phenomenon whereby behaviors that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Operant Conditioning • Freely chosen behaviors increase or decrease when followed by reinforcement or punishment. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 1 Classical and Operant Conditioning of Attitudes Affectively based attitudes can result from either classical or instrumental conditioning. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Affectively Based Attitude Similarity • Affectively-based attitudes are similar for several reasons. – Not a result of rational examination – Not governed by logic – Often linked to values Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Behaviorally Based Attitude • An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) • Under certain circumstances, people do not know how they feel until they see how they behave – Can form our attitudes based on our observations of our own behavior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) • People infer their attitudes from their behavior only under certain conditions: – When initial attitude is weak or ambiguous. – When no other plausible explanation for behavior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes • Explicit Attitudes – Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report. • Implicit Attitudes – Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

People can have both explicit and implicit attitudes toward the same topic. Social psychologists have been especially interested in people’s explicit and implicit attitudes toward members of other races. Source: moodboard/Corbis Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes • Example – Sam—A white, middle-class college student who genuinely believes that all races are equal and abhors racial bias • This is Sam’s explicit attitude – It is his conscious evaluation of other races – Governs how he chooses to act » E. g. , Consistent with his explicit attitude, Sam signed a petition in favor of affirmative action policies Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes • Example – Sam has grown up in a culture in which there are many negative stereotypes about minority groups • Negative ideas have affected him in ways of which he is not fully aware – If, when Sam is around African Americans, some negative feelings are triggered automatically and unintentionally, this would be an example of a negative implicit attitude Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Implicit Attitudes Video Click on the screenshot to watch Dr. Banaji discuss implicit attitudes and a measure used to assess them — the Implicit Attitudes Test. Back to Directory Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes • We have explicit and implicit attitudes about many things. – Not just different races! – Example: • Students can believe explicitly that they hate math • At an implicit level, can have a more positive attitude • Measurement – Implicit attitudes test (IAT) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How Do Attitudes Change? • Often due to social influence – This is why social psychologists are interested! – Attitudes are social phenomena. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Sometimes attitudes change dramatically over short periods of time. For example, Americans’ approval rating of President Obama has gone up and down since he assumed the presidency. Source: AP Photo/Alex Brandon Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior • People experience dissonance: – When their image is threatened. – When they cannot explain behavior with external justifications • Leads to finding internal justification for behavior • Brings your attitude and your behavior closer together – Equals attitude change! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior • Example – Suppose you don’t want to rub your new father-in-law the wrong way by arguing with him about politics. You might go along with a mildly positive remark about a politician you actually dislike. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior • Example – Counterattitudinal advocacy • Process by which people are induced to state publicly an opinion or attitude that runs counter to their own private attitudes – Creates dissonance. » Without sufficient external justification, it results in a change in people’s private attitude Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Changing Attitudes via Persuasive Communication Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Persuasive Communication • Communication (e. g. , a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue. • How should you construct a message so that it would really change people’s attitudes? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change • Yale Attitude Change Approach – The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages • “Who said what to whom” – Who: the source of the communication – What: the nature of the communication – Whom: the nature of the audience Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 2 The Yale Attitude Change Approach Researchers at Yale University initiated research on what makes a persuasive communication effective, focusing on “who said what to whom. ” Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion • Elaboration Likelihood Model – An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion • Elaboration Likelihood Model – Central route • When people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication – Peripheral route • When people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 3 The Elaboration Likelihood Model The elaboration likelihood model describes how people change their attitudes when they hear persuasive communications. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion • The Central Route to Persuasion – The case whereby people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion • Peripheral Route to Persuasion – The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments • Personal relevance of the topic – How important is the topic to a person’s well-being? – More personally relevant, pay more attention. • Central route Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 4 Effects of Personal Relevance on Type of Attitude Change The higher the number, the more people agreed with the persuasive communication. Left panel: When the issue was highly relevant, people were swayed by the quality of the arguments more than the expertise of the speaker. This is the central route to persuasion. Right panel: When the issue was low in relevance, people were swayed by the expertise of the speaker more than the quality of the arguments. This is the peripheral route to persuasion. (Based on data in Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments • People high in the need for cognition – Form attitudes through central route • People low in the need for cognition – Rely on peripheral cues Need for Cognition A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Ability to Pay Attention to the Arguments • When people are unable to pay close attention to the arguments, they are swayed more by peripheral cues – Status of communicator – Liking or trusting communicator • Someone with a weak argument can still be persuasive if they distract their audience Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How to Achieve Long-Lasting Attitude Change • People who base their attitudes on a careful analysis of the arguments will be: – More likely to maintain this attitude – More likely to behave consistently with this attitude – More resistant to counter-persuasion Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotion and Attitude Change Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fear-Arousing Communications • Persuasive messages that attempt to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

As of 2013, FDA rules call for all cigarette packs sold in the United States to display pictures that warn about the dangers of smoking, such as the one shown here. Do you think that this ad would scare people into quitting? Source: UPI/FDA/LANDOV Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fear-Arousing Communications • Do fear-arousing communications work? – Moderate amounts of fear work best – Provide information on how to reduce fear Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 5 Effects of Fear Appeals on Attitude Change People were shown a scary film about the effects of smoking, instructions about how to stop smoking, or both. Those who were shown both had the biggest reduction in the number of cigarettes the smoked. (Adapted from Leventhal, Watts, & Pagano, 1967) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fear-Arousing Communications • Strong amounts of fear fail if they overwhelm people. • Become defensive • Deny importance of threat • Cannot think rationally about issue Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions as a Heuristic • Heuristic–Systematic Model of Persuasion – An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: • Systematically processing the merits of the arguments Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions as a Heuristic • Heuristic–Systematic Model of Persuasion – An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: • When using peripheral route – Use mental shortcuts (heuristics) » e. g. , “Experts are always right” – Use emotions as heuristic Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions as a Heuristic • Use emotions and moods as heuristics to determine attitudes – “How do I feel about it? ” • If we feel good – must have a positive attitude about object • If we feel bad – thumbs down! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions as a Heuristic • Problem with the “How do I feel about it? ” heuristic – Can make mistakes about what is causing our mood • Misattribute feelings created by one source to another • If so, people might make a bad decision Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions as a Heuristic • Advertisers and retailers want to create good feelings about product – Pair product with appealing music or showing pleasant images • hope people will attribute feelings to the product Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Attitude Change and Different Types of Attitudes • Several studies have shown that it is best to “fight fire with fire”: – If an attitude is cognitively based • Try to change it with rational arguments – If it is affectively based • Try to change it with emotional appeals Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotion and Different Types of Attitudes • Some ads stress the objective merits of a product – Price, reliability, efficiency • Other ads stress emotions and values – Sex, beauty, youthfulness • Which kind of ad is most effective? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 6 Effects of Affective and Cognitive Information on Affectively and Cognitively Based Attitudes When people had cognitively based attitudes, cognitively based advertisements that stressed the utilitarian aspects of the products worked best. When people had more affectively based attitudes, affectively based advertisements that stressed values and social identity worked best. The higher the number, the more favorable thoughts people listed about the products after reading the advertisements. (Based on data in Shavitt, 1990) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Culture and Different Types of Attitudes • Western cultures – May base attitudes more on individuality and self-improvement • Eastern cultures – May base attitudes more on standing in social group Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 7 Effects of Confidence in One’s Thoughts on Persuasion People who nodded their heads up and down, compared to those who shook their heads from side to side, had greater con- fidence in their thoughts about the message (e. g. , “Wow, this is really convincing” when the arguments were strong, and “Wow, this is really dumb” when the arguments were weak). (Figure adapted from Briñol & Petty, 2003) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resisting Persuasive Messages • Attitude Inoculation – Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resisting Persuasive Messages • Be Alert to Product Placement! – Advertisers increasingly place messages about their products shows – Pay the makers of a TV show or movie to incorporate their product into the script Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Product placement, in which a commercial product is incorporated into the script of a movie or television show, is becoming more common. Source: © Screen Gems/courtesy Everett Collection Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resisting Persuasive Messages • Being Alert to Product Placement – When people are forewarned, they analyze what they see and hear more carefully and as a result are likely to avoid attitude change. – Without such warnings, people pay little attention to the persuasive attempts and tend to accept them at face value. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resisting Persuasive Messages • Being Alert to Product Placement – So before kids watch TV or sending them off to the movies, it is good to remind them that they are likely to encounter several attempts to change their attitudes. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resisting Persuasive Messages • Resisting Peer Pressure – Peer pressure in adolescence • Operates on values and emotions – Liking and acceptance by peer group • Not based in logical arguments – To make adolescents resistant to attitude change attempts via peer pressure • Attitude inoculation that focuses on inoculating against emotional appeals Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

When Persuasion Attempts Boomerang: Reactance Theory • Reactance Theory – The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

A number of interventions designed to prevent smoking in adolescents have had some success. Many celebrities have lent their names and pictures to the effort, such as actor Jackie Chan, who was the spokesperson for an anti-smoking campaign in Taiwan. Source: REUTERS/Kenny Wu Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors • Attitudes will predict spontaneous behaviors only when they are highly accessible to people. Attitude Accessibility The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Predicting Deliberative Behaviors • Theory of Planned Behavior – The idea that the best predictors of a person’s planned, deliberate behaviors are the person’s attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Predicting Deliberative Behaviors • Specific behavior – Only specific attitudes can be expected to predict that behavior • Subjective norms – We also need to measure people’s subjective norms (their beliefs about how people they care about) will view the behavior in question. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Predicting Deliberative Behaviors • Perceived behavioral control – Intentions are influenced by the ease with which they believe they can perform the behavior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 8 Theory of Planned Behavior According to this theory, the best predictors of people’s planned, deliberative behaviors are their behavioral intentions. The best predictors of their intentions are their attitudes toward the specific behavior, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioral control of the behavior. (Adapted from Ajzen, 1985) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Power of Advertising • People more influenced by advertising than they think. – Particularly for new products – Effective ads worked quickly, increasing sales substantially within the first six months they were shown. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

This ad is one of the most famous in the history of advertising. Although today it is easy to see how sexist and offensive it is, when it appeared in the 1930 s it succeeded in making a problem (bad breath) personally relevant by playing on people’s fearsand insecurities about personal relationships. Can you think of contemporary ads that try to raise similar fears? Source: Advertising Archives Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Power of Advertising • There is no evidence that the types of subliminal messages encountered in everyday life have any influence on people’s behavior. Subliminal Messages Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people’s judgments, attitudes, and behavior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

There is no scientific evidence that implanting sexual images in advertising boosts sales of a product. In fact, subliminal advertising is rarely used and is outlawed in many countries. The public is very aware of the subliminal technique, however—so much so that advertisers sometimes poke fun at subliminal messages in their ads. Source: Reprinted with permission of 4 A’s Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Advertising, Cultural Stereotypes, and Social Behavior • Advertisements transmit cultural stereotypes in their words and images, subtly linking products with desired images. • Advertisements can also reinforce and perpetuate stereotypical ways of thinking about social groups. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Gender Stereotypes in Advertising Imagery • Gender stereotypes are particularly pervasive in advertising imagery. • Men are depicted as doers, women as observers. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 7. 9 Portrayals of Women and Men in Television Advertising The ways in which women and men are portrayed in television commercials have been examined throughout the world. In every country, women were more likely to be portrayed in powerless, dependent roles than men were. (Based on data in Furnham & Mak, 1999) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Summary and Review • • Origins of Attitudes Attitude Change Attitudes and Behavior Subliminal Messages Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.