Chapter 7 Anatomy and Physiology 7 1 Basic

Chapter 7 Anatomy and Physiology

7: 1 Basic Structure of the Human Body ▶ The normal function of the human body is compared to an organized machine ▶ The machine malfunctions, disease occurs ▶ Anatomy: study of form and structure ▶ Physiology: study of processes ▶ Pathophysiology: study of how disease occurs and body’s response

Protoplasm ▶ Basic substance of life (represents the living part of the cell) ▶ Made of ordinary elements (e. g. , carbon, oxygen, hydrogen) ▶ Scientists can combine these elements, but not create life ▶ Protos is greek for “first” and plasm represents “things formed”

Cells ▶ Microscopic organisms that carry on all functions of life ▶ Body contains trillions of cells ▶ Vary in shape and size ▶ Perform different functions ▶ Page 143

Basic Parts of Cells ▶ Cell membrane – the outer protective covering of a cell. It is called the plasma membrane and is considered semipermeable (allows certain cells to come and go but not others) ▶ Cytoplasm – a semifluid inside the cell but outside the nucleus. It is the site for all chemical reactions that take place in a cell. ▶ Organelles – cell structures that help a cell to function and are located in the cytoplasm (main organelles are the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, centrioles, golgi apparatus, etc. ) ▶ Nucleus – a mass in the cytoplasm. It is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane that contains pores to allow substances to pass between the nucleus and cytoplasm. It is called the “brain” of the cell (continues)

Basic Parts of Cells (continued) ▶ Nucleolus – one or more small round bodies found in the nucleus, and important to cell reproduction. Ribosomes are manufactured in the nucleus ▶ Chromatin – located in the nucleus and made of DNA and protein. During cell reproduction the chromatin condenses to form a chromosomes. ▶ ▶ A human cell has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs. Each chromosome contains between 30, 000 to 45, 000 genes. Each gene has a specific and unique sequence of 1000 base pairs of DNA. Genome – total mass of genetic instruction humans inherit from their parents. (continues)

Basic Parts of Cells (continued) ▶ Centrosome – located in the cytoplasm and near the nucleus and it contains two centrioles. It helps distribute chromosomes. ▶ Mitochondria – rod-shaped organelles located throughout the cytoplasm. They are called “powerhouses” of the cell because they break down carbs and fats to produce energy. ▶ Golgi apparatus – a stack of membrane layers located in the cytoplasm. Produces, stores, and packages secretions from cells. Cells of the salivary, gastric, and pancreatic glands have many of these.

Basic Parts of Cells (continued) ▶ Endoplasmic reticulum – a fine network of tubular structures located in the cytoplasm. Allows for transport of materials to the nucleus. ▶ Ribosomes – sites for protein synthesis and located on rough ER. ▶ Vacuoles – pouchlike structures found throughout the cytoplasm. Filled with watery substance, store food, and waste products. ▶ Lysosomes – oval or round bodies found throughout the cytoplasm. Contain digestive enzymes that destroy old cells, bacteria, etc. ▶ Pinocytic vesicles – pocketlike folds in the cell membrane. These folds allow for large molecules such as proteins and fats to enter the cell.

Cell Structure ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=URUJD 5 NEXC 8

Mitosis ▶ Asexual reproduction process used by most cells ▶ Different types of cells reproduce at different rates ▶ Skin, blood, and intestinal cells reproduce continuously ▶ Muscle cells reproduce every few years ▶ Specialized cells such as the brain or spinal cord do not reproduce after birth ▶ Process of mitosis—see Figure 7 -2 in text page 144

Meiosis ▶ Process by which sex cells reproduce ▶ Uses two separate cell divisions ▶ Female cells (ova) and male cells (spermatozoa or sperm) divide to produce 23 chromosomes each ▶ When ova and sperm combine, 46 chromosomes result to form zygote (new cell) ▶ The zygote begins a period of rapid division. Within 4 -5 days the zygote is a mass of cells called a blastocyst ▶ The blastocyst contains stem cells which have the ability to transform themselves into any of the body’s specialized cells. ▶ Stem cells have become a controversial topic as doctors attempt to program stem cells to replace damaged cells or cure diseases.

Meiosis vs Mitosis ▶ Meiosis ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=n. MEye. KQClq. I ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=q. CLm. R 9 -YY 7 o ▶ Mitosis ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=ofjyw 7 ARP 1 c ▶ Mitosis vs Meiosis ▶ https: //www. yourgenome. org/facts/mitosis-versusmeiosis

Stem Cells ▶ Controversy arises from the fact that a 4 -5 day embryo is capable of creating new life, yet is used to gather stem cells instead. ▶ Advocates for right to life are strictly against stem cell research ▶ Another way to obtain stem cells is from the blood in a babies umbilical cord and placenta. Mothers are now given the option to freeze this blood incase the child develops a disease that can be cured with stem cells. ▶ Adults have stem cells also in their bone marrow and liver yet they do not have the ability to evolve into every kind of cell. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=JIr. JK 6 u. E 3 XY

Tissues ▶ Cells of same type joined together ▶ 60%– 99% water ▶ This water is slightly salty and is called tissue fluid. If there is not enough fluid dehydration can occur. When there is too much fluid a condition called edema can occur which is swelling of the tissues. ▶ Groups of tissues (four main groups) ▶ Epithelial – covers the surface of the body and is the main tissue of the skin(respiratory, intestinal, and urinary lining) ▶ Connective – is the supporting fabric of organs and other body parts and can be soft or hard (soft – ligaments and tendons / hard – cartilage and bone / blood – liquid tissue) ▶ Nerve – is made up of special cells called neurons and it controls and coordinates body activities ▶ Muscle - produces power and movement by contraction of muscle fibers

Four types of tissues ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=i 5 t. R 3 cs. CWYo

Muscles ▶ Produces power and movement by contraction of muscle fibers. ▶ There are three main types of muscle tissue: ▶ Skeletal – attach to bones and provide movement ▶ Cardiac – cause the heart to beat ▶ Visceral – present in the walls of the respiratory, digestive, urinary tract, and blood vessels

Organs and Systems ▶ Organs: two or more tissues joined together for a specific purpose (heart, stomach, lungs) ▶ Systems: organs and other body parts joined together for a particular function ▶ The basic systems are the integumentary (hair skin nails), skeletal, muscular, circulatory, lymphatic, nervous, respiratory, digestive, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive ▶ (camera page 146)

Summary ▶ Protoplasm is basic substance of life ▶ Protoplasm forms structural units called cells ▶ Cells combine to form tissue ▶ Tissues combine to form organs ▶ Organs and other parts combine to form systems ▶ Systems work together to create miracle of human body

7: 2 Body Planes/Directions/Cavities ▶ Body planes: imaginary lines drawn through body at various levels to separate body into sections ▶ Directional terms are created by planes ▶ Transverse plane – is a horizontal plane that divides the body into a top and bottom half ▶ Midsagittal or median plane – divides the body into left and right sides ▶ Frontal or coronal plane – divides the body into a front and back section ▶ Proximal and distal – describes the location of extremities in relation to the trunk of the body (proximal is close distal is further away) ▶ (camera page 149)

Cavities ▶ Spaces within the body that contain vital organs ▶ Dorsal or posterior – is one long continuous cavity located on the back of the body and is divided into two sections ▶ ▶ Cranial cavity – contains the brain ▶ Spinal cavity – contains the spinal cord Ventral or anterior cavities – are larger than the dorsal cavity and located on the front of the body ▶ Thoracic cavity – is located in the chest and contains the esophagus, trachea, lungs, heart, etc. ▶ Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, small intestine, some large intestine, appendix, and pancreas. ▶ Pelvic cavity – contains the urinary bladder, reproductive system, and the last part of the large intestine

Cavities ▶ Three small cavities ▶ Orbital – for the eyes ▶ Nasal – for the nose structure ▶ Buccal – for the mouth, teeth, and tongue

Abdominal Regions ▶ Abdominal cavity is separated into regions or sections because it is so large ▶ Quadrants ▶ RUQ (right upper) ▶ LUQ (left upper) ▶ RLQ (right lower) ▶ LLQ (left lower) (continues)

Abdominal Regions (continued) ▶ Regions ▶ Epigastric ▶ Umbilical ▶ Hypogastric ▶ Hypochondriac ▶ Lumbar ▶ Iliac or inguinal ▶ (camera page 150)

7: 3 Integumentary System ▶ Name for the skin and its structures ▶ Called a membrane because it covers the body ▶ Called an organ because it contains several kinds of tissues ▶ Most professionals call it a system because it has organs and other parts that work together for a particular function ▶ On average, the skin covers 3000 square inches of surface area and accounts for about 15 percent of total body weight

Layers of the Skin ▶ Epidermis—outermost layer of skin that is made up of five smaller layers of skin but no blood vessels or nerve cells. The outer layer of skin constantly sheds while the innermost layer replaces the cells ▶ Dermis—“true skin” contains elastic connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, sweat, oil glands, and hair follicles ▶ Subcutaneous fascia or hypodermis—the innermost layer made of elastic and fibrous connective tissue and fatty tissue and connects the skin to underlying muscles ▶ (page 53 of med term) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Orumw-Py. Njw

Glands and Other Parts of the Skin ▶ Sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) – coiled tubes that extend through the dermis and open on the skin surface. Sweat contains water, salts, and some body wastes but is usually odorless. When sweat interacts with bacteria smell occurs. ▶ Sebaceous glands (oil glands) – they produce sebum, an oil that keeps the skin and hair from becoming dry. Sebum is acidic and can act as an antibacterial. When the oil gland becomes plugged, blackheads or pimples occur. ▶ Hair – grows in a hollow tube called a follicle ▶ Nails – can regrow as long as the nail bed is not lost

Functions ▶ Protection – serves as a barrier to sun’s rays and germs ▶ Sensory perception – the nerves in the skin help the body respond to pain, pressure, temp, and touch ▶ Regulation of body temperature – blood vessels in the skin help the body retain or lose heat ▶ Storage – the skin has tissues for temporary storage of fat, glucose, water, vitamins, and salts ▶ Absorption – certain substances can be absorbed through the skin such as medication (transdermal meds) ▶ Excretion – the skin helps the body eliminate salt, a small amount of waste, and excess heat and water ▶ Production – the skin helps with production of vitamin D by using ultraviolet rays from the sun to form the beginnings of vitamin D

Skin Color—Pigmentation ▶ Skin color is inherited and is determined by pigments in the epidermis ▶ Melanin – brownish black pigment that is produced in the epidermis and genes from each racial group determine the number of melanin produced ▶ Melanin can lead to black, brown, and yellow skin tint depending on what skin color is present ▶ Ultraviolet light activates melanin to form more pigments to protect and tan the skin, small concentrations of melanin form freckles

Skin Color—Albino ▶ Absence of skin pigments ▶ Skin has pinkish tint ▶ Hair is pale yellow or white ▶ Eyes are red in color and sensitive to light ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=c. HRM 2 S_f. BOk

Skin Color—Abnormal ▶ Erythema – is a reddish color of the skin that can be caused by burns or congestion of blood vessels ▶ Jaundice – a yellow discoloration of the skin, can indicate bile in the blood as a result of liver and gallbladder disease ▶ Cyanosis – is a bluish discoloration of the skin caused by insufficient oxygen ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v =EN-x-z. XXVw. Q

Skin Eruptions ▶ Macules (macular rash) – flat spots on the skin, such as freckles (pg. 60 mt) ▶ Papules (papular rash) – firm raised areas such as pimples and eruptions (pg. 61 mt) ▶ Vesicles – blisters or fluid filled sacs (pg. 62 mt) ▶ Pustules – pus-filled sacs (pg. 62 mt) ▶ Crusts – areas of dried pus or blood (scabs) ▶ Wheals – itchy, elevated areas with an irregular shape (pg. 63 mt) ▶ Ulcer – a deep loss of skin surface that may extend into the dermis; may cause bleeding or scars (pg. 62 mt)

Skin Burns ▶ First degree – superficial first degree burns in the epidermis ▶ Second degree – partial thickness second degree burns in the epidermis and dermis ▶ Third Degree – full thickness third degree burns in the deep tissue (pg. 64 mt) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Dsvtzwp 4 n. G 8

Skin Grafts ▶ Allograft – skin taken from one person and given to another. Is commonly referred to ad a cadaver https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Rpc. Fx. RAk. Vp. I ▶ Autograft – skin graft taken from a person’s own body https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=31 Oa. RPgm. EZc

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Acne vulgaris – also known as acne, the cause is unknown yet we do recognize the it happens most during adolescence. Hormonal changes and excessive oil in the sebaceous gland contribute to acne (old age=dry) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=l. Ax 5 gwhmsdo ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=KI 6 Sqybay 4 Y ▶ Athlete’s foot – a contagious fungal infection that usually affects the feet. The skin itches, blisters, and cracks into open sores ▶ Skin cancer – the most common form of cancer ▶ Basal cell carcinoma ▶ Squamous cell carcinoma (pg. 66 & 67) ▶ Melanoma (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Dermatitis – an inflammation of the skin, can be caused by an allergic reaction to detergents, cosmetics, pollen, or certain foods ▶ Eczema – a noncontagious, inflammatory ▶ Impetigo – highly contagious skin infection usually caused by strep or staph organisms. Antibiotics and topical treatments should be used.

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Psoriasis – Psoriasis is a chronic, noncontagious skin disease with periods of outbreaks and remissions. The cause is unknown but the link may be hereditary ▶ Ringworm – a highly contagious fungai infection of the skin or scalp. The characteristic symptoms are the formation of a flat or raised circular area with a itchy or scaly outer ring ▶ Verrucae/warts/plantar warts – caused by viral infection of the skin. Some warts disappear spontaneously while others must be treated

Surgical Procedures ▶ Cryosurgery – use of extreme cold to freeze and destroy tissue ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=K 7 Dk. K 8 myhj 4 ▶ Debridement – removal of foreign material and dead or damaged tissue from a wound ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=GKIEId. MFMw. I ▶ Electrocautery – to destroy tissue with an electric current ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Ei. Rif. KSHs. EE ▶ Onychectomy – removal of a nail or portion of a nail ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=_LJ 8 e 0 d. ZChg

7: 4 Skeletal System ▶ Made of organs called bones ▶ Adult has 206 bones ▶ Serves as framework for muscles, fat, and skin ▶ Protects internal structures ▶ Produces blood cells ▶ Stores calcium, phosphorus, and fats ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=r. DGqk. MHPDq. E

Long Bones ▶ Bones of the extremities are called “long bones” ▶ Diaphysis – the long shaft of the bone ▶ Epiphysis – the ends of the bone ▶ Medullary canal – the cavity within the shaft or diaphysis ▶ Yellow marrow – is mainly a storage for fat cells (continues)

Long Bones (continued) ▶ Endosteum – the membrane that lines the inner medullary cavity and keeps the marrow intact ▶ Red marrow – produces red blood cells and is found in the certain bones (ribs, sternum, etc. ) and in the ends of the humerus and femur ▶ Periosteum – tough membrane on the outside of the bone that is important to bone growth, repair, and nutrition ▶ Cartilage – shock absorbers for the ends of bones where they meet ▶ (Pg. 158 DHO) ▶ (pg. 87 MT) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=q 4 v. Xr 9 Iu. PVc

Skeleton ▶ ▶ Axial ▶ Main trunk of body ▶ Skull, spinal column, ribs, and sternum Appendicular ▶ Extremities ▶ Shoulder girdle, arm bones, pelvic girdle, and leg bones

Skull ▶ Cranium holds the brain and is composed of eight bones ▶ Fontanels – soft spots that allow for the enlargement of the skull for brain growth ▶ Sutures – areas where the cranial bones have joined together ▶ Sinuses – are air spaces in the bones of the skull that act as resonating chambers for voice ▶ Foramina – are openings in the bones that allow for blood vessels and nerves to enter or leave the bone ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=QYK 2 I 50 p. Tdw ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=M 7 SEQ 4 Dlh. KQ

Cranial Bones ▶ Eight bones of skull that surround and protect the brain ▶ Frontal ▶ Parietal (2) ▶ Temporal (2) ▶ Occipital ▶ Ethmoid ▶ Sphenoid

Facial Bones ▶ 14 bones of skull that form facial features ▶ Mandible—lower jaw ▶ Maxilla (2)—upper jaw ▶ Zygomatic (2)—cheek ▶ Nasal (5)—upper part of nose ▶ Lacrimal (2)—inner aspect of eye ▶ Palatine (2)—hard palate (roof of mouth) ▶ (Pg. 158 DHO)

Vertebrae ▶ Spinal column— 26 bones ▶ Protects the spinal cord ▶ Supports head and trunk ▶ Cervical (7)—neck ▶ Thoracic (12)—chest, attach to ribs ▶ Lumbar (5)—waist ▶ Sacrum (1)—back of pelvic girdle ▶ Coccyx (1)—tailbone ▶ (Pg. 159 DHO) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=NAd 9 g 5 n. Uur. E ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=0 q. R-Yfw 9 f. OI

Intervertebral Disks ▶ Pads of cartilage separating vertebrae ▶ Act as shock absorbers ▶ Permit bending and twisting movements ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=3 VCS 4 QDETac

Ribs (costae) ▶ 12 pairs of long slender bones ▶ Attach to thoracic vertebrae ▶ True ribs—first 7 pairs; attach to sternum ▶ False ribs—last 5 pairs

Sternum ▶ Breastbone ▶ Consists of 3 parts ▶ Two clavicles attach ▶ Ribs attach with cartilage ▶ Manubrium (top) ▶ Gladiolus (body or center) ▶ Xiphoid process (bottom) ▶ Xiphoid - At birth, it is a thin, roughly triangular region of cartilage which gradually turns into bone in adulthood and forms part of the sternum. It is used by numerous muscles especially the abdominal diaphragm.

Sternum

Shoulder or Pectoral Girdle ▶ 2 clavicles (collarbones) ▶ 2 scapula (shoulder bones) ▶ Upper arm bones attach to scapula ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=5 bneyl. G 3 w 10 ▶ Broken collarbone ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=hu. Td. HYMn. Ea 0

Bones of the Arm ▶ Humerus ▶ Radius ▶ Ulna ▶ Carpals ▶ Metacarpals ▶ Phalanges

Bones of the Legs ▶ Femur ▶ Patella ▶ Tibia ▶ Fibula ▶ Tarsals ▶ Metatarsals ▶ Phalanges

Joints ▶ Where two or more bones join ▶ Ligaments – connective tissue bands that help hold long bones together at joints ▶ Three types of joints: ▶ Diarthrosis or synovial – freely movable (ball and socket joints like the hip and shoulder) ▶ Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable (attachments of the ribs to vertebrae) ▶ Synarthrosis – immovable (suture joints in the cranium) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=DLx. YDo. N 634 c

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Arthritis - inflammation and stiffness of the joints ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Yc-9 dfem 3 l. M&t=192 s (2: 10) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Cxh. Fhid. Wn 6 w ▶ (1: 00) ▶ Bursitis – inflammation of the small fluid filled sacs surrounding the joints ▶ Fractures – a crack or break in a bone ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=j. T 8 B 8 fyx 050 (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶Dislocation – is when a bone is forcibly displaced from a joint. Frequently occurs in shoulders, hips, kees, etc. ▶ ▶Sprain https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=a. N 7 z. Dxty. Hy 8 – ligament tears caused from a twisting motion ▶Osteomyelitis – bone inflammation caused by an infectious organism ▶Osteoporosis – softening of the bones caused by hormone deficiency, lack of calcium, or sedentary lifestyle (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Ruptured disk – when an intervertebral disc ruptures or protrudes out of place and causes pressure on the spinal nerves ▶ Abnormal curvature of spine ▶ Kyphosis – rounded bowing of the back “hunchback” ▶ Scoliosis – side-to-side or lateral curvature ▶ Lordosis – abnormal inward curvature of the lumbar region ▶ They can be caused by bad posture, birth defects, degeneration, etc.

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Abnormal curvature of spine ▶ Kyphosis – rounded bowing of the back “hunchback” ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=f 2 dcp-Fc-xc ▶ Scoliosis – side-to-side or lateral curvature ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=zes 3_Oseh 2 o

7: 5 Muscular System ▶ 600+ muscles in the body ▶ Bundles of muscle fibers held together with connective tissue ▶ Properties of muscles ▶ Excitability/irritability – the ability to respond to nerve impulses ▶ Contractibility – stimulated muscle fibers contract to become short and thick ▶ Extensibility – the ability to be stretched ▶ Elasticity – allows the muscle to return to its original shape after contraction

Kinds of Muscles ▶ Cardiac—involuntary/ forms the walls of the heart and contracts to circulate blood ▶ Visceral or smooth—involuntary / found in internal organs such as digestive system, respiratory systems, and the blood vessels ▶ Skeletal—voluntary / attached to the bones and causes movement ▶ Skeletal muscles provide voluntary movement, heat and energy for the body, help maintain posture, and protect internal organs ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=I 80 Xx 7 p. A 9 h. Q&t=314 s

Attachments to Bone ▶ ▶ Skeletal muscles attach to bones in different ways ▶ Bicep tear https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=n 2 Yut 0 l 2 o. U ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=y. CP 9 svq. IY 2 s Tendon – strong tough connective tissue cords ▶ Achilles https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=o 4 p-x. HYu. Eh. Y ▶ Finger tendon https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=bo. Ml. Ea 3 P 43 g ▶ Fascia – a tough sheetlike membrane that covers and protects tissue ▶ Origin and insertion – origin is the end of a muscle that does not move while insertion is the end of the muscle that contracts ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=z. BPXq. WIH 0 UQ

Actions or Movements of Muscles ▶ Adduction – moving a body part toward the midline ▶ Abduction – moving a body part away from the midline ▶ Flexion – bending a body part ▶ Extension – straightening a body part ▶ Rotation – turning a body part around its axis ▶ Circumduction – moving in a circle at a joint or moving one end of a body part in a circle while the other part remains stationary

Muscle Tone ▶ Partially contracted at all times ▶ Muscle tone allows for state of readiness ▶ Loss of muscle tone can occur with severe illness

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Fibromyalgia – chronic widespread pain in specific muscle sites ▶ Muscular dystrophy – a group of inherited diseases that lead to chronic muscle atrophy and usually leads to death ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=-gv. Vkki. E Duchenne’s dystrophy – the most common type of dystrophy occurs between the ages of 2 and 5

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Myasthenia gravis – chronic condition where nerve impulses are not properly transmitted to muscles which leads to muscle weakness and paralysis ▶ ▶ Muscle spasms or cramps – sudden, painful, involuntary muscle contractions. Usually occur in the legs or feet ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=PEY 5 g. HESic. I https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=i-k. N 2 uof. Ez 0 Strain – overstretching or strain of the muscle

7: 6 Nervous System ▶ Complex and highly organized ▶ Coordinates all of the many activities of the body ▶ Allows the body to respond adapt to changes that occur both inside and outside the body ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=q. Pix_X-9 t 7 E

Neuron ▶ Neuron is also called a nerve cell ▶ Basic structural unit of the nervous system ▶ Parts of neuron ▶ Cell body ▶ Nucleus ▶ Nerve fibers (dendrites – towards, axon - away)

Nerves ▶ Combination of nerve fibers ▶ Located outside the brain and spinal cord

Central Nervous System ▶ Consists of two main divisions (pg. 170) ▶ Central nervous system (CNS) ▶ ▶ Brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) ▶ Somatic nervous system – carries messages between the CNS and the body ▶ Autonomic nervous system – controls the involuntary body functions

Central Nervous System The Brain ▶ Cerebrum – largest and highest section of the brain separated into lobes and is responsible for memory, judgement, speech, hearing, sight, smell, voluntary movement. ▶ Frontal – reasoning, motor skills, expressive language, socialization ▶ Parietal – pressure, touch, pain, senses ▶ Temporal – memory, speech, hearing ▶ Occipital – vision, colors, recognizing objects and words

Central Nervous System The Brain ▶ Cerebellum (pg. 171) – below the back of the cerebrum and is responsible for coordination, balance, and posture ▶ Diencephalon – contains the thalamus that relays pain and temperature and the hypothalamus that auto nervous responses like sleep, appetite, fear, pleasure, and pain ▶ Midbrain – relays impulses and controls eye function and auditory reflexes ▶ Pons – conducts messages across the brain and handles reflexes such as chewing, tasting, and saliva production ▶ Medulla oblongata – connects with the spinal cord and regulates heartbeat, swallowing, coughing, and blood pressure

Central Nervous System ▶ Meninges – three membranes that cover, protect, and nourish the brain and spinal cord ▶ Ventricles – hollow spaces that connect to each other and are filled with cerebrospinal fluid that protects the brain as a shock absorber and brings nutrients to certain parts of the brain ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=v. Hrmiy 4 W 9 C 0

Central Nervous System The Spinal Cord ▶ Continues down from medulla oblongata ▶ Surrounded and protected by the vertebrae ▶ Responsible for many reflex actions ▶ Carries sensory (afferent) messages to the brain ▶ Carries motor (efferent) message from the brain

Peripheral Nervous System ▶ ▶ Somatic nervous system (voluntary) ▶ Cranial nerves (12 pairs) – sight, hearing, taste ▶ Spinal nerves (31 pairs) – sensory or motor messages to and from the spinal cord Autonomic nervous system (involuntary) ▶ Digestion, perspiration, urination, etc. ▶ Sympathetic – increases heart rate, increase respiration, and blood pressure ▶ Parasympathetic – slowing heart rate, decrease respiration, lower blood pressure ▶ https: //www. diffen. com/difference/Parasympathetic_ner vous_system_vs_Sympathetic_nervous_system

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (Lou Gehrig’s disease) – Nerve cells in the CNS (brain) that control voluntary movement degenerate resulting in muscle atrophy (wasting away). Cause is unknown but it could be genetic. Average lifespan is 4 -6 years after first signs. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=R 15 KRYjk. A 80 ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=PNHDd 8 eo. WDs ▶ Carpal tunnel syndrome – repeated movements of the wrist can cause swelling around the nerve tunnel which can cause numbness or pain ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=z-Se. Jh 5 -n. Oo (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Encephalitis – inflammation of the brain which can be caused by a virus such as complications from chicken pox or a mosquito bite ▶ Meningitis – Inflammation of the meninges caused by bacteria. Symptoms include headaches, nausea, convulsions, etc. ▶ ▶ Epilepsy or seizure syndrome – brain disorder associated with abnormal electrical impulses and neurons of the brain. Symptoms include loss of consciousness and convulsions ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=-y 2 pr 31 dv. Pg https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=OSc. Bxa 6 Fp. Ck Cerebral palsy – disturbances in voluntary muscle action caused by brain damage, prenatal infections, etc. Symptoms range (continues) from spasms to speech impairment ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Cc-cbc. JVw 00

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Hydrocephalus – Excessive amounts of brain fluid which can prevent brain development. It is usually caused from a birth defect and symptoms include bulging eyes, retardation, irritability etc. ▶ Multiple sclerosis (MS) – Degenerative disease resulting from the breakdown of the protective covering of the nerves. Genetics or viral infection are the cause and symptoms include weakness, fatigue, paralysis, speech impairments. ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=M 7 O 78 Lvr. NSQ Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) (stroke) – lack of oxygen reaching the brain could be caused by a hemorrhage or blockage. Treatment within the first hours is important ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=pcmrgw. NCPw. M

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Neuralgia – Nerve pain caused by inflammation. Pressure, toxins, and other diseases. ▶ Paralysis – A brain or spinal injury that destroys neurons and results in loss of function or sensation below the injured area. ▶ Parkinson’s disease – Condition involving the degeneration of brain cells. Symptoms include stiffness, difficulty in stopping while walking, tremors, mood swings, etc. ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=ECk. PVTZlf. P 8 Shingles or herpes zoster – inflammation of nerve cells that is caused by the herpes virus. It occurs in the thoracic area and follows the path of affected nerves.

7: 7 Special Senses ▶ Senses allow body to react to the environment ▶ See, hear, taste, smell, and to maintain balance ▶ Body structures receive sensation, nerves carry to brain, brain interprets and responds to message

Eye ▶ Sense of sight ▶ Light rays transmitted to the optic nerve ▶ Optic nerve relays information to brain ▶ Eye is well protected ▶ Bony socket ▶ Eyelids and eyelashes – keep dirt out ▶ Lacrimal glands – produce tears to clean and moisten eye ▶ Conjunctiva – lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eye to protect and lubricate the area. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=WN 7 DL 49 pxs. Y

Layers of the Eye ▶ Sclera—outer ▶ Choroid coat—middle ▶ Retina—innermost ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=o 0 DYP-u 1 r. NM

Other Special Structures ▶ Iris – color ▶ Pupil – iris opening ▶ Lens – suspended refracting lens ▶ Aqueous humor ▶ Vitreous humor ▶ Muscles ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=mf 5 ot. GNbkuc ▶ http: //www. michaelbach. de/ot/

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Amblyopia— lazy eye is caused by the dominance of the other eye and treatment must take place or vision could be lost ▶ Cataract – when the clear lens of the eye becomes cloudy or opaque (causes can be age or injury) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Jj. KVDz. Hp. G 2 k ▶ Conjuctivitis — pink eye is a contagious inflammation of the conjunctiva and is caused by bacteria in the eye ▶ Glaucoma – increased pressure in the eye usually a result from age and is a leading cause of blindness ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=c. F 0 rj 4 f. M 1 l 0 (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ (page 178) ▶ Astigmatism - abnormal curvature of the cornea which focuses light on multiple areas rather than one ▶ Hyperopia — farsightedness which occurs when light rays are not refracted sharply enough and the image focuses behind retina ▶ Myopia — nearsightedness which occurs when the light rays are refracted too sharply and the image focuses in front of retina ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=6 Yxff. Fmi 4 Eo

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ (page 178) ▶ Presbyopia – farsightedness cause by loss of lens elasticity and aging and can be treated with reading glasses ▶ Macular degeneration – a major cause of vision loss and blindness that impacts the central most sensitive section of the retina slowly and over time ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Q 71 n 209 Pxl. U Strabismus – disorder in which the eyes do not move or focus together and is caused from muscle weakness in one or both eyes

Ear ▶ Controls hearing and balance ▶ Sound waves transmitted to the auditory nerve ▶ Auditory nerve relays information to the brain for interpretation ▶ Consists of the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear

Outer Ear ▶ Pinna or auricle – the visible part of the outer ear ▶ Auditory canal - special tube that produces wax and allows sound waves to travel ▶ Tympanic membrane (eardrum) – separates the outer ear and middle ear and transmits sound vibrations to the middle ear

Middle Ear ▶ Contains three small bones that help transmit sound to the inner ear. It also connects to the throat to allow air flow to equalize pressure. ▶ Malleus ▶ Incus ▶ Stapes ▶ Eustachian tube

Inner Ear ▶ Oval window – membrane that separates parts of the ear ▶ Vestibule ▶ Cochlea – contains delicate, hairlike cells, which form the organ of corti ▶ Organ of Corti – the receptor of sound waves ▶ Semicircular canals – contain liquid and delicate hairlike cells that bend when the liquid moves. This part of the ear helps with balance.

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Hearing loss ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=m. Miwx. UUj 7 Xg

Sense of Taste ▶ Taste receptors located on the tongue ▶ Four main tastes ▶ Most people have different amounts of taste buds between 2, 000 and 10, 000. Those with more than 10, 000 are considered supertasters ▶ You can test taste buds with food coloring ▶ Taste buds protect you with nasty tastes ▶ Sweet – tip of the tongue ▶ Salty – tip of the tongue ▶ Sour – sides of the tongue ▶ Bitter – back of the tongue

Sense of Smell ▶ Nose is the organ of smell ▶ Olfactory receptors in nasal cavity ▶ Impulses carried from the olfactory nerve to the brain for interpretation ▶ Humans can detect over 6, 000 smells ▶ Odor and taste work together ▶ Sense of taste and smell related which is why you can not taste food when you have a cold ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=m. Fm 3 y. A 1 nsl. E&t=5 26 s ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Vu. R 6 Qu. Wr. Hrc&t=5 02 s

Skin and General Senses ▶ Sense receptors for pressure, heat, cold, touch, and pain located in the skin and connective tissue ▶ Allows the human body to respond to its environment ▶ Help body react to conditions that could cause injury

7: 8 Circulatory System ▶ Also known as the cardiovascular system ▶ Consists of heart, blood vessels, blood ▶ Transports oxygen and nutrients to all body cells ▶ Transports carbon dioxide and metabolic materials away from the body cells

Heart ▶ Muscular, hollow organ functions as pump (pg. 184) ▶ Weight is less than one pound ▶ Location ▶ Three layers of tissue ▶ Endocardium – smooth layer of cells that lines the heart and allows for smooth blood flow ▶ Myocardium – the thickest layer of the heart ▶ Pericardium – double layered membrane and covers the outside of the heart (continues)

Heart (continued) ▶ Septum – the muscular wall that separates the left and right side of the heart ▶ Heart chambers (atrium = upper chamber, ventricle = bottom chamber) ▶ Right atrium – receives blood as it returns from body cells ▶ Right ventricle – receives blood from the right atrium and pumps blood into the pulmonary artery ▶ Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the lungs for oxygen ▶ Left ventricle – receives blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the aorta for transport to the body cells ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=C WFyxn 0 q. DEU ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=X 9 ZZ 6 tcx. Ar. I (continues)

Heart (continued) ▶ Valves ▶ Tricuspid – between right atrium and right ventricle ▶ Pulmonary – between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery ▶ Mitral – between the left atrium and left ventricle ▶ Aortic – between the left ventricle and aorta (continues)

Heart (continued) ▶ Cardiac Cycle ▶ Diastole – when the heart muscles relax and allow blood to fill the chambers of the heart ▶ Systole – when heart muscles contract and pumps blood from the chambers to the arteries ▶ (Pg. 185) (continues)

Heart (continued) ▶ Conductive pathways – electrical impulses are sent to the heart in order to push blood throughout the body ▶ Arrhythmias – when there is interference in the electrical current sent to the heart can begin to beat abnormally ▶ Pacemakers can help with electrical impulses ▶ http: //www. heart. org/HEARTORG/Conditions/Arrhythmia/Prev ention. Treatmentof. Arrhythmia/Prevention-Treatment-of. Arrhythmia_UCM_002026_Article. jsp#. Wo. Wft 1 rw. Yd. W ▶ Ablation https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=_Wk. TQB 4 ARf. M ▶ Pacemaker or ICDhttps: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=WNN 4 Fw 2 EWx. I&has_ve rified=1

Heart (continued) ▶ Artificial heart ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=YUYNXe. Hf. Td. Q ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=q. Ut. Ke_j. Soas ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=g. NUATS 8 Jhuk

Blood Vessels ▶ Blood is carried throughout the body in blood vessels ▶ Arteries – carry blood away from the heart and are more muscular and elastic (pg. 188) ▶ Capillaries – thin walls allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through the cells ▶ Veins – blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart (pg. 189)

Blood ▶ Average adult: 4– 6 quarts ▶ Transports many substances ▶ Plasma – is a component of blood and is 90% water and many other substances such as nutrients, vitamins, and carbs ▶ Blood cells ▶ Erythrocytes or red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow at a rate of one million per minute and live 120 days. There approximately 25 trillion in the body ▶ Leukocytes or white blood cells are also formed in the bone marrow and live about 3 -9 days and they help fight infection

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Anemia – lack of red blood cells that starves organs of oxygen which can cause fatigue, rapid heart rate, or paleness because of lack of blood flow to organs ▶ Sickle cell anemia – Red blood cells live a fraction of the time that they should and are shaped like a sickle which can block blood flow ▶ Aneurysm – a ballooning out of or saclike formation in the artery wall. If it bursts it can be deadly. ▶ Arteriosclerosis – hardening or thickening of the artery walls resulting is a loss of contractibility. It occurs as a result of aging and can cause high blood pressure. ▶ Atherosclerosis – when fatty plaque is deposited in the walls of the arteries ▶ Angioplasty or stent (pg. 192) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=vm. Lr. VUXBViw ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=t-z. CBKRg 7 Cs (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶Congestive heart failure (CHF) – when heart muscles do not beat properly in order to pump blood ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=d. JBFCergsu. M ▶Embolus – a foreign substance circulating in the blood stream and it could be a clot, air, or bacteria that could block the passage ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Szs. QWIMYb. N 8 ▶Hemophilia – is an inherited disease that occurs almost always in males and causes blood to not clot because of a lack of plasma. These people will bruise and bleed easily.

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶Hypertension – is high blood pressure that can be hereditary or caused by smoking, stress, or obesity ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=di. G 519 d. FVNs ▶Leukemia – is a disease of the bone marrow or lymph tissue. It results in a high number immature white blood cells and the body can not fight infection ▶Myocardial infarction (heart attack) — when the arteries that bring blood to the heart are blocked the heart loses oxygen and can stop working properly. Symptoms include sever pain in the arm, neck, jaw, and chest. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=n 8 P 3 n 6 GKBSY ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=3 Nf 6 Q 2 sk. GOM

7: 9 Lymphatic System ▶ Works with the circulatory system ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=_Gin. TV 94 h. Uk ▶ Removes waste and excess fluids from the body tissues ▶ Lymph – a thin watery fluid composed of water, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. ▶ Lymphatic vessels – located throughout the body in all of the tissues that have blood vessels. ▶ Lymph nodes (glands) – located all over the body and in groups and clusters. They are small round and oval ▶ Lymph vessels bring lymph to the nodes. The nodes filter out the impurities such as carbon, cancer cells, pathogens, etc. The lymph is then filled with antibodies and white blood cells. (continues)

Lymphatic System (continued) ▶ Lymphatic ducts – As the lymph material leave the nodes they gather in groups and travel to the lymphatic ducts which then distribute the cleaned lymph back to the blood ▶ Lymph tissue – is located throughout the body (spleen, tonsils, thymus) ▶ Tonsils – masses of lymphatic tissue that filter fluid ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=mavz. Z 88 px. VM

Lymphatic System (continued) ▶ ▶ Spleen – an organ located between the left side of the diaphragm and the back upper section of stomach. It destroys old blood cells and filters metabolites and waste from the body. ▶ Splenectomy can be recommended if the spleen is damaged in a car wreck or contact sport. Also, sickle cell or other blood disorder can cause the spleen to die. You may live without a spleen but you will be more prone to infection ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Gy 1 d. H 0 QDSck Thymus – a mass of lymph tissue located in the center of the upper chest. It wastes away after puberty and is replaced by fat

7: 9 Lymphatic System ▶ Adenitis – inflammation or infection of the lymph nodes. It occurs when large quantities of harmful substances, such as pathogens or cancer cells infect the tissue (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Hodgkin’s disease – chronic disease of the lymph nodes that is malignant and is the most common form of lymphoma and is one of the most curable cancers ▶ Lymphangitis – inflammation of the lymphatic vessels, resulting from an infection in an extremity ▶ ▶ Splenomegaly – enlargement of the spleen and can result in a build up of red blood cells ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=7 R 2 Juaw 2 y. Y https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=I 5 b 2 Rao. B 5 Z k Tonsillitis – inflammation or infection of the tonsils ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=G 8 VTXKzy 9 o. U

7: 10 Respiratory System ▶ Lungs and air passages ▶ Takes oxygen in and removes carbon dioxide which is a by product of converting food into energy ▶ Works continuously or death occurs in 4– 6 minutes ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=b. HZsv. Bd. UC 2 I (continues)

Respiratory System (continued) ▶ Nose – Has two nasal cavities that are separated by a nasal septum. The nose is lined with a mucous membrane that moistens and warms the air. The hair like structures in the nose trap dirt and pathogens (breath in through your nose) ▶ Sinuses – Are cavities in the skull that surround the nasal area. The sinuses are lined with a mucous membrane to warm and moisten air and provide resonance in the voice ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=VL 8 pq. YVd. YG 8 ▶ Pharynx – (throat) ▶ Larynx – (voice box) Also called the Adam’s apple, it contains the vocal cords and is larger in males to support deeper and more prominent voices

Respiratory System (continued) ▶ Trachea – (windpipe) A tube that carries air between pharynx and bronchi ▶ Bronchi – Located in the center of the chest, they bring air from the trachea to the lungs ▶ Lungs – Primary organ of the respiratory system that is used to bring oxygen to the body and extract carbon dioxide into the atmosphere ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=8 NUxv. JS-_0 k ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=MJpit. Xgy 0 z 4

Ventilation ▶ Process of breathing ▶ Inspiration - inhalation ▶ Expiration - exhalation ▶ Respiration – the process of inspiration and expiration that is controlled by the medulla oblongata ▶ External respiration – the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and blood stream ▶ Internal respiration – the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between tissue cells and the bloodstream

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Asthma – respiratory disorder caused by sensitivity to an allergen such as dust which can cause narrowing of airways and increased mucus ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Pzf. LDi-s. L 3 w ▶ Bronchitis – Inflammation caused by an infection and can cause chest pains and fever ▶ Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – Chronic lung disease that obstructs the airways. Smoking is the primary cause but damage to the lungs can be deadly ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=RKnwzpqm. Fxg (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Emphysema – noninfectious, respiratory condition that occurs when the walls of the lungs lose their ability to exchange gases and carbon dioxide is trapped ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=TEu. SV_7 g. WA 8 Epistaxis – nosebleed caused when capillaries in the nose become congested or dry ▶ Steroid nasal sprays can damage the lining of the nose and should only be used sparingly. Saline solution spray is typically fine. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=6 BHMGv 5 o. Tqc (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Influenza (flu) – highly contagious viral infection of the upper respiratory system. Symptoms include chills, fever, cough, fatigue ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Rpj 0 em. EGSh. Q Laryngitis – inflammation of the larynx and vocal cords. It frequently occurs with other respiratory infections. Symptoms include hoarseness or loss of voice. (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ ▶ Lung cancer – leading cause of cancer death in men and women and is caused from exposure to carcinogens in tobacco through smoking or second hand smoke. ▶Around 90% of lung cancer develops because of tobacco smoke ▶Around 250, 000 new cases and 150, 000 deaths in 2017 Pneumonia – inflammation or infection of the lungs that is caused from bacterial of viral infections and forces fluid to build up in the lungs. ▶https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=a. Kdu. Ngfe. PLU (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ ▶ ▶ Sleep apnea – when an individual stops breathing while asleep ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=i 6 lx. O 6 W 2 -m 8&t=61 s ▶ Most common reason is excessive weight but enlarged tonsils and narrow pathways can also be the cause Tuberculosis (TB) – an infectious lung disease caused by a specific bacteria. Certain strains have become resistant to drugs which can make this disease more dangerous. It can cause fever, fatigue, and coughing up blood. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=IGZLk. RN 76 Dc ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Ita-Wall 6 jo&t=25 s Upper respiratory infection (URI) – also known as a cold, it is the inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the upper respiratory tract. They are highly contagious and usually have to run its course before the patient gets better.

7: 11 Digestive System ▶ Physical and chemical breakdown of food for use by the body ▶ System consists of the alimentary canal and the accessory organs ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Og 5 x. Ad. C 8 EUI

Alimentary Canal ▶ Long muscular tube ▶ Begins at the mouth and ends at the anus and inludes: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus ▶ Accessory organs: salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Mouth, Buccal, or Oral Cavity ▶ Receives food as it enters the body ▶ Actions in the mouth – food is broken down, lubricated, and partially digested by saliva and teeth ▶ Teeth – chewing and grinding is called mastication ▶ Tongue – utilizes taste buds for flavor ▶ Hard palate – bony structure that forms the roof of the mouth ▶ Soft palate – behind the hard palate and separates the mouth from the nasal passages and has a uvula attached which also helps prevent food from entering ▶ Salivary glands – create saliva which breaks down carbs and starches into sugars and food becomes bolus ▶ Saliva protects from cavities ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=QPM 2 hw. QV-34 ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=b. Yudf 5 i. SJ_M

Mouth, Buccal, or Oral Cavity

Pharynx ▶ Carrier for both air and food ▶ Carries food bolus to the esophagus ▶ When bolus swallowed, epiglottis closes to prevent food from entering respiratory tract Esophagus ▶ Muscular tube dorsal to the trachea ▶ Carries bolus to stomach ▶ Peristalsis moves food toward stomach

Stomach ▶ Receives food from esophagus ▶ Cardiac sphincter – connection between stomach and esophagus ▶ Pyloric sphincter – connection between stomach and small intestine ▶ Food remains in stomach about 1– 4 hours ▶ Gastric juices form chyme, a semifluid material

Small Intestine ▶ About 20 feet long; 1 inch in diameter ▶ Receives food from the stomach in the form of chyme ▶ Small intestine ▶ Duodenum – first 9 -10 inches and is where bile from the gallbladder and liver enter ▶ Jejunum – 8 feet in length in the middle section ▶ Ileum – final 12 feet that connects to the large intestine (continues)

Small Intestine (continued) ▶ Intestinal juices ▶ Bile from gallbladder ▶ Pancreatic juice from pancreas ▶ Villi – fingerlike projections that digest nutrients for them to be sent to the liver to be stored or released into general circulation for cells ▶ When food has finished its journey through the small intestine, only wastes, indigestible materials, and excess water remain

Large Intestine ▶ About 5 feet long; 2 inches in diameter ▶ Functions include absorption of water and any remaining nutrients ▶ Cecum – first section connected to the small intestine ▶ Colon – the final part of the digestive tract that reabsorbs nutrients before fecal matter leaves the system ▶ Rectum – opening by which fecal matter is expelled

Liver ▶ Largest gland in the body ▶ Accessory organ for digestive system that secretes bile which is used to emulsify fats in the digestive tract. Bile also makes fats water soluble which is necessary for absorption. ▶ Location – under the abdominal diaphragm and in the top upper right quadrant of the abdomen ▶ The liver will detoxify alcohol and pesticides that attempt to poison you. The liver will also destroy bacteria that have been taken into the blood from the intestine ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=wbh 3 Sjzydn. Q

Gallbladder ▶ Small muscular sac located under the liver ▶ It is located under the liver and attached by connective tissue ▶ Stores and concentrates bile ▶ Bile needed to emulsify fats

Pancreas ▶ Fish-shaped organ located behind the stomach ▶ Produces pancreatic juices to digest food ▶ Produces insulin which is secreted into the blood stream; regulates burning of carbohydrates to convert glucose to energy ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=8 dgoe. YPo. E-0

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Appendicitis – Inflammation of the appendix, usually resulting from an obstruction and infection. If the appendix ruptures, the infectious material can spill ▶ ▶ Cholecystitis – Inflammation of the gallbladder in which symptoms occur after eating fatty foods which can create gall stones ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=r 2 zsbd. PBh. GY https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=R 9 YTJ 7 WID 9 U Cirrhosis – destruction of liver cells which can be caused by heptatitis, chemical toxins, or alcohol ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=l-SBR 7 p 7 K-M (continues)

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Constipation – feces remain in the colon too long and excessive amounts of water reabsorption takes place forcing the feces to become hard and difficult to expel ▶ Beans, vegetables, and grains ▶ Diarrhea – frequent watery stools caused by infection etc. ▶ Hemorrhoids – painful dilated or varicose veins of the rectum or anus and can be caused by straining, prolonged sitting, or laxative abuse ▶ Hepatitis – viral inflammation of the liver which can cause many symptoms including dark urine, clay stools, and muscle pain

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions (continued) ▶ Hernia or rupture – when an internal organ pushes through a weakened area or natural opening ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=R 6 pwl. IVQPVA ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Dr. EZ 0 V_GKI 4 ▶ Pancreatitis – inflammation of the pancreas and the pancreatic enzymes will begin to digest the pacreas itself ▶ Ulcer – is an open sore in the lining of the digestive tract which can be caused by stress, diet, bacteria, etc. Usually can be cured with medicine to cut down on the acidity of the stomach ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=ln. Vj. Xuy. M 6 xk Ulcerative colitis – inflammation of the colon which includes ulcers and abscesses. Symptoms may include blood, pus, and mucus filled stool

7: 12 Urinary System ▶ Excretory system ▶ Removes certain wastes and excess water from the body ▶ Maintains homeostasis – a state of equilibrium or natural balance of the body ▶ Maintains acid-base balance ▶ 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, bladder, and urethra ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=l 128 t. W 1 H 5 a 8

Kidneys ▶ Bean-shaped organs located on either side of the vertebrae column ▶ Kidneys are protected by the ribs and a cushion of fat ▶ The kidneys are divided into two main sections ▶ Cortex – the outer section of the kidney and contains most of the nephrons ▶ Medulla – the inner section of the kidney ▶ Nephrons – microscopic filtering units located in the kidneys and there are more than a million in each kidney ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=FN 3 MFh. YPWWo&in dex=2&list=PLtx-q. UNKJw. Dz 2 h 9 S 5 Yvil 7 Nmwuof. KC 9 C 3

Ureters ▶ Muscular tubes about 10– 12 inches long ▶ Extend from renal pelvis of each kidney to bladder ▶ Peristalsis moves urine through tube to bladder (wavelike motion)

Bladder ▶ Muscular sac ▶ Lined with mucous membranes that disappear once filled with urine ▶ Three layers of visceral muscle form walls ▶ Bladders have the urge to void or release urine when there is roughly 1 cup of urine in the bladder but the bladder can hold up to two cups at night and possibly more if you can hold it. ▶ Circular sphincter muscles control the release of urine. Infants cannot control this muscle but they learn to control it as they age. ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=J 2 Ag. ZE 5 k. TUU

Urethra ▶ Carries urine from bladder to the outside ▶ Urinary meatus is the external opening ▶ Female systems – the tube is 1. 5 inches in length and only carries urine ▶ Male systems – tube is 8 inches long and carries both urine and semen ▶ Urine – is %95 water and contains waste products that dissolved in the urine which include, urea, creatine, mineral salts, and pigments ▶ You produce around 8 cups of urine a day from the 600 cups of fluid that pass through the kidneys ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=t. OA 2 y. Din 74 g

Conditions that impact urination ▶ Polyuria – excessive urination ▶ Oliguria – below normal amounts of urination ▶ Anuria – absence of urination ▶ Hematuria – blood in urine ▶ Pyuria – pus in urine ▶ Nocturia – urination at night ▶ Dysuria – painful urination ▶ Retention – inability to empty bladder ▶ Incontinence – involuntary urination ▶ Proteinuria – protein in the urine ▶ Albuminuria – albumin in the urine

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Cystitis – is an inflammation of the bladder, usually caused by pathogens entering the urinary meatus or tip of the urethra. Symptoms include urination, dysuria, and a burning sensation while urinating. ▶ Pyelonephritis – inflammation of the kidney tissue caused by pus forming bacteria ▶ Renal calculus or urinary calculus – considered a kidney stone, a calculus is formed when salts in the urine settle and the larger stones become lodged. Symptoms can be painful and the patient will attempt to drink more fluids to flush the material out. Occasionally the stones may need to be crushed with a tool or surgically removed ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=W 0 Gp. IMNTPYg ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=je 6 SPs 8 KSao

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions ▶ Renal failure – is when the kidneys stop functioning and the body can not filter the urine. Dialysis may be needed to clean the blood ▶ Chronic renal failure – when the kidneys lose their function slowly overtime ▶ Acute renal failure – can be caused from a hemorrhage, shock, or injury ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=EU 2 sk. U 3 bg. S 8 ▶ Uremia – toxic condition that occurs when kidneys fail and urinary waste products are present ▶ Urethritis – inflammation of the urethra usually caused by bacteria, viruses, or chemicals, and is more common in males

7: 13 Endocrine System ▶ Group of ductless (without tubes) glands ▶ Secrete substances called hormones ▶ Hormones that are secreted directly into bloodstream and perform multiple functions ▶ Stimulate exocrine glands ▶ Stimulate other endocrine glands ▶ Regulate metabolism ▶ Maintain fluid and chemical balance ▶ Control various sex processes ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=e. WHH 9 je 2 z. G 4&t=400 s ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=WMVEGAVd. Eoc&t=566 s

Pituitary Gland ▶ Master gland of the body because it produces many hormones that affect other glands ▶ Located at the base of the brain and is divided into two sections, the anterior and posterior lobes which each secrete certain hormones ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Vae 5 Cca. PN_8&t=1 8 s ▶ Diseases or complications of the pituitary gland ▶ Acromegaly – results from the over secretion of growth hormone in the body usually caused by a non cancerous tumor. Bones, feet, and face enlarge and create a grotesque appearance ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Ebhf 1 q. KVA 9 A ▶ Giantism – results from the over secretion of growth hormone before hitting puberty. It causes the growth of long bones and at times, mental retardation ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=s 6 UXLav. IFJ 4 ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=j 5 p 16 T 3 P 8 LQ

Pituitary Gland ▶ Diabetes insipidus – results from decreased secretion of antidiuretic hormone and prevents water from being absorbed by the kidneys and can cause polyuria (excessive urination) ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=z-8 e 3 WGm. SL 4 ▶ Dwarfism – results from the under secretion of growth hormones and can be caused from a tumor, infection, or genetic factors ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=KEqrkc. LVl. H 0

Thyroid Gland ▶ Regulates body’s metabolism ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=i. Nr. Up. Bw. U 3 q 0 ▶ Located in neck on either side of the larynx ▶ Requires iodine from food intake (iodized salt) although we get enough iodine in America with the food we eat although some pregnant women will need more iodine during pregnancy ▶ Goiter – enlargement of the thyroid gland which can cause difficult swallowing, coughing, and choking ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=z. Laa. IYt. SXnk&has_v erified=1 ▶ Hyperthyroidism – overactive thyroid gland which can cause nervousness, tremors, irritability, heat intolerance, and excessive appetite

Thyroid Gland ▶ Graves’ disease – severe form of hyperthyroid which is more common in women and can be treated with radioactive iodine ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=l. PNLf. EZip. PE ▶ Hypothyroidism – underactivity of the thyroid gland that can lack of mental growth and abnormal stature

Parathyroid Glands ▶ Attached to thyroid glands ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=s. D 9 st 1 ZPFr. Q ▶ Regulate amount of calcium in the blood and stimulates bone tissue and the release of calcium. Although most calcium is in the blood, circulating calcium is important to blood clotting and muscle contraction ▶ Hyperparathyroidism – overactivity of the parathyroid which causes too much calcium in the blood stream which can cause kidney stones ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=xa. TXVSmv. EJI&has_ verified=1 ▶ Hypoparathyroidism – underactivity of the parthyroid with symptoms including twitching and death if it involves the larynx

Pancreas ▶ Located behind the stomach ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=pzk. LG 2 -3 u 0 A ▶ Both an exocrine and endocrine gland ▶ Exocrine – secretes pancreatic juices for the small intestine ▶ Endocrine – secretes hormones insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar ▶ Diabetes mellitus – chronic disease caused by decreased secretion of insulin ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=y. ENe. J 70 S 5 QE ▶ Type I – usually occurs early in life, is more severe, and requires insulin ▶ Type II – it frequently occurs in obese adults and is usually controlled with diet and medications ▶ Moderate exercise can reduce the risk for diabetes by 55 -70 percent

Adrenal Glands ▶ Located above each of the kidneys and produce steroid hormones, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. Epinephrine and norepinephrine cause the fight or flight response ▶ Addison’s disease – caused by a decrease in the secretion of aldosterone and can cause dehydration, diarrhea, fatigue, and yellowing/bronzing of the skin ▶ Cushing’s syndrome – oversecretion of glucocorticoids and symptoms include hyperglycemia, hypertension, and poor wound healing

Other Endocrine Glands ▶ Ovaries: female sex glands, located in the pelvis, secrete hormones that regulate menstruation and secondary sexual characteristics ▶ Testes: male sex glands, located in the scrotal sac, produce hormones that regulate secondary sexual characteristics

Thymus ▶ Located in the upper part of chest ▶ Active in early life activating cells of the immune system ▶ Atrophies (wastes away) during puberty and becomes a small mass of connective tissue ▶ Produces thymosin – which produces lymphocytes and antibodies in early life ▶ ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=BFK 9 la. BVa 54 Thymus thump

Placenta ▶ Temporary endocrine gland produced during pregnancy ▶ It acts as a link between the mother and infant and provides nutrients for developing infant, and promotes lactation ▶ Expelled after the birth of the child ▶ Some people have now been eating and using this to help after child birth

Melatonin ▶ It is a sleep and body clock regulator not a sleep initiator. Melatonin works with the biological clock by telling your brain when it is time to sleep ▶ By taking melatonin you are having a type of hormone therapy which is not good ▶ Hormones work on negative feedback(if your body needs more of a certain hormone it recognizes and administers it). If you use melatonin then your body cant recognize what it needs ▶ There are no studies that prove that melatonin helps with sleep in young adults ▶ It does cause a grogginess because it produces an over abundance of stress hormones.

Steroids ▶ Boosts testosterone levels in the body which cause the body to stop producing testosterone ▶ Can cause a change in metabolism ▶ Can cause the growth of intestinal muscles ▶ Can enlarge the heart past its normal size ▶ Can cause males to grow breasts ▶ Can cause major reproductive problems and complications ▶ Testes will shrink ▶ Erectile dysfunction ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? time_continue=1&v=EK Wa. J_7 PPXE

Pineal Body ▶ Located in the brain ▶ Exact function unknown ▶ Secretes melatonin

7: 14 Reproductive System ▶ Function is to produce life ▶ Although the anatomic parts differ in male and females, they both consist of gonads (sex glands) and accessory organs to carry secretions ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=G 0 Zu. Cil. Cu 3 E&t=35 1 s

Male Reproductive System ▶ Testes are the male gonads ▶ Produce testosterone which helps with sperm development and is responsible for secondary male characteristics such as facial hair, body hair, large muscles, and deep voice ▶ Scrotum - is the sac suspended between the thighs and is located outside of the body in order to keep the temperature low for sperm production ▶ Epididymis – tightly coiled tube approximately 20 feet in length that is located in the scrotum and above the testes. the epididymis stores sperm until it can mature ▶ Vas deferens – receives the sperm from the epididymis and brings them through two tubes that wrap up behind the bladder and connect to the seminal vesicles ▶ Vasectomy – male vas deferens is nipped or blocked from reaching the urethra for fertilization ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=230 hlv. GYCnc ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Ghkj. Pu. EX 5 Ps (continues)

Male Reproductive System ▶ Seminal vesicles – are two small pouch like tubes located behind the bladder that produce a thick, yellow fluid that is rich in sugar and provides nourishment for the sperm ▶ Ejaculatory ducts – two short tubes that connect vas deferens and seminal vesicles and they carry the sperm and fluids through the prostate and urethra ▶ Prostate gland – a donut shaped gland located below the urinary bladder and on either side of the urethra and produces a alkaline secretion that increases sperm motility and neutralizes the acidity of the vagina. The prostate contracts during ejaculation which pushes sperm forward and closes off the ability of urine to flow (continues)

Male Reproductive System (continued) ▶ Cowper’s glands – two small glands that secrete mucus to provide lubricant and decrease the acidity of the urethra for sperm flow ▶ Urethra – tube that extends from the urinary bladder, through the penism, and outside the body ▶ Penis – the external male reproductive organ that is covered in a foreskin that is sometimes removed. the penis is made of a spongy erectile tissue that’s fills with blood to become erect

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions Male ▶ Epididymitis – inflammation of the epididymis that can be caused by infections, mumps, or STDs. if not treated promptly, it can cause scarring and sterility. treatment includes antibiotics and cold applications. ▶ Orchitis – is an inflammation of the testes, usually caused by mumps or injury. it can lead to atrophy of the testes and cause sterility. symptoms include swelling of the scrotum and fever. treatments include antibiotics and vaccinations

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions Male ▶ Prostatic hypertrophy or hyperplasia – enlargement of the prostate gland common in men over the age of 50. the enlargement could be benign caused by inflammation, tumor, or change in hormones. this condition may cause urinary infections, frequent urination, nocturia etc. and a TUR is used to remove part of the prostate ▶ Prostate cancer – radiation and estrogen may be used to decrease testosterone or an orchiectomy may be needed ▶ Testicular cancer – happens in males between the ages of 20 to 35 and is highly dangerous in how it spreads. Most males should begin testing themselves as soon as they can ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=so. NIj 6 f. Ehfc

Female Reproductive System ▶ Fallopian tubes – two tubes, each approximately 5 inches long and attached to the upper part of the uterus ▶ Tubal ligation (tubes tied) – the fallopian tubes are tied to prevent sperm from traveling up the fallopian tube to reach the egg ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=gg 4 B 4 s 5 cy. Ic ▶ Uterus – is a hollow, muscular, pear shaped organ located behind the urinary bladder and in front of the rectum ▶ Ovaries – are the female gonads that are small, almond shaped glands located in the pelvic cavity. the ovaries contain thousands of small sacs called follicles and each follicle contains an immature ovum, or female sex cell. when the ovum matures the follicles release the ovum in a process called ovulation which happens once every 28 days

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System ▶ Day 1: The first day of your menstrual flow is the beginning of your cycle. ▶ Day 7: By day seven your egg is preparing to be fertilized by sperm. ▶ Days 11 -21: (based on 28 -day cycle) Hormones in your body cause the egg to be released from the ovary, which is known as ovulation. The egg travels through the fallopian tube towards the uterus and is only available to be fertilized for 12 -24 hours during this window. If sperm penetrates the egg, the fertilized egg will attach to the lining of the uterus and begin to grow. If fertilization does not happen, the egg breaks apart. ▶ Day 28: If the egg is not fertilized, hormone levels drop around this day, causing the lining of the uterus to be shed, which is known as menstruation.

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System ▶ Vagina – is a muscular tube that connects the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. it serves as a passageway for menstrual flow and receives sperm from the male. ▶ Bartholin’s glands – small glands located on each side of the vagina to help with mucus flow ▶ Vulva – the external area of the female genitals ▶ Breasts or mammary glands – main purpose is to produce lactate after childbirth

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions Female ▶ Breast tumors – can be benign or malignant and symptoms include a lump or mass in the breast tissue, or a change in breast size or shape. the American cancer society recommends checking oneself at least once a month. ▶ Mammogram – low dose x-ray to examine the breasts ▶ ▶ 35 -40 year olds should have a mammogram ▶ 40 – 49 year olds should have a mammogram every 1 -2 years ▶ 50 and above should have a mammogram every year ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=y. THy. MNBkb. OY&t=1 s Cancer of the cervix and/or uterus – cervical cancer may cause vaginal discharge or vaginal bleeding while uterine cancer can cause an enlarged uterus or watery discharge

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions Female ▶ Endometriosis – when the lining of the uterus grows outside the uterine walls which can cause debilitating pain during periods or using the restroom and can prohibit pregnancy ▶ Polycystic ovarian disease (PCOS) – when the adrenal glands produce more male hormones than they should which can cause irregular periods, weight gain, and trouble getting pregnant ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Fs. NKy. KS 7 M_s ▶ Hysterectomy – surgery to remove all or part of the uterus ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=hn 8 Jf 6 nfv 7 c

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions Female ▶ Ovarian cancer – one of the most common causes of cancer deaths in women and it frequently occurs in women aged 4060. symptoms include abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, constipation, etc. and treatment usually includes the removal of the reproductive organs ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=e. ICQe-p 4 Vo 4 ▶ Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) – symptoms that occur around 3 -14 days before menstruation that are caused by hormonal imbalances during this period of time.

Birth Control ▶ https: //www. plannedparenthood. org/learn/birth-control ▶ Birth control that uses hormones can be more complicated and give higher risk towards cancer development ▶ Plan B pill gives the body and overdose of hormones to delay the release of the female egg ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=LOu. P 5 Je. JX 5 Q ▶ Condoms are needed in order to stop STD’s ▶ Male birth control is starting to surface but male birth control has to stop millions of sperm compared to one female egg ▶ Gel injection that can be reversed ▶ Pill that slows down the sperm so that it cannot reach the egg

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) ▶ AIDS – caused by a virus called HIV which attacks the immune system and damages the white blood cell count of the body. this disease makes it hard to fight off infection ▶ https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=0 Tip. Tog. QT 3 E ▶ Where did HIV start? Scientist have traced HIV to a set of West African chimpanzee’s ▶ The earliest human diagnosis was in 1959 in the Congo and may have stemmed from one virus in the 1950’s ▶ The US began having outbreaks of sicknesses in the 1970’s and it caused hysteria ▶ It usually impacts gay males because anal sex gives the person 18 X the chance of contracting HIV because the anus has thinner walls and feces harbor infections

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) ▶ Chlamydia – one of the most frequent occurring STD’s and is caused by several strains of the chlamydia organism that cause pain and mucus discharge during urination. treated with antibiotics. ▶ Gonorrhea – a bacteria infection that can cause yellow/greenish discharge and burning during urination. treated with antibiotics.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) ▶ Herpes – viral disease that causes burning sensation and fluid filled vesicles that rupture and form painful ulcers. the attacks are usually not as bad as the first but the disease will flare up on occasion ▶ Pubic lice – parasites that are transmitted sexually although they can be spread by contact with clothing or bed linen that have the lice. medicine can be taken to kill the lice and eggs ▶ Syphilis – painless sore forms on the penis or vulva and if not treated, it can infect the bloodstream and cause deadly complications ▶ Trichomonas vaginalis – parasitic infection which can cause a large frothy discharge of yellow-green material. antiparasitic medicine is needed to contain the STD.