Chapter 6 Understanding Human Development Objective Distinguish between

Chapter 6 Understanding Human Development

Objective • Distinguish between growth and development. © ampyang/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Understanding Human Development • Growth refers to physical changes • Stages of development are similar for almost everyone Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Discussion • What is the difference between growth and development? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Objective • Identify the main types of human development. © spotmatik/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Physical Development • Physical development includes – gross-motor skills, such as walking and throwing – fine-motor skills, such as picking up objects and eating with a spoon Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Cognitive Development • Cognition involves – knowing – memorizing – sensing – organizing © Stock. Lite/Shutterstock. com continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Cognitive Development • Cognitive development is also called intellectual development • Cognitive skills increase gradually over time • Connections between brain nerve cells are key to cognitive development • Brain connections strengthen with experiences starting in infancy Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Social-Emotional Development • Social-emotional development includes – relationships – feelings – social skills – self-confidence and self-esteem – self-control continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Social-Emotional Development • Challenges increase as development progresses © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Objective • Develop examples that illustrate principles of development. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Principles of Human Development • • Development is relatively orderly Developing is a gradual, continual process Development is interrelated Development varies among individuals Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Development Is Relatively Orderly • Development occurs in a sequence of steps • Predictable steps consistently follow one after another • Teachers use this knowledge to design appropriate learning strategies for their students’ age Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Discussion • Give examples of how development occurs in predictable steps. © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Development Is a Gradual, Continuous Process • Developmental changes happen gradually • They become apparent over time © Kharidehal Abhirama Ashwin /Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Development Is Interrelated • Acquiring new skills requires gains in several areas – Physical development – Cognitive development – Social development – Emotional development Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Reflection • As a teen, in what ways have you developed physically? cognitively? socially? emotionally? © Archipoch/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Development Varies Among Individuals • Many factors affect development • Each person’s progress is unique – Different rates – Slightly different time schedules Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Objectives • Define a developmental theory. • Apply developmental theories to real-life situations. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Theories of Development • Researchers formulate developmental theories by – analyzing behavior and development – observing people – performing experiments – considering earlier research studies continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Theories of Development • Developmental theories help teachers – understand what students are capable of and why – get a broader picture than limited experiences and observations provide • Many developmental theories exist Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) © Felix Mizionikov/Shutterstock. com continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Both influence development • Researchers question how large a part each plays in development • Genetics affect – biological factors – intellectual potential – environment a person seeks out continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Behaviors involve multiple genes affected by a variety of environmental factors • No single gene determines behavior © marema/Shutterstock. com continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Environmental factors include – family – peers – community – media – health – nutrition and physical activity continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Family – Often the greatest effect on development – Parenting techniques – Stimulating home environment • Peers – Influence increases in later childhood and adolescence – Offer equal status, unlike adult-child relationships continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Community – Where a person lives can affect behavior and career expectations – Relationship with feelings of self-worth – Some offer more cultural opportunities • Media – Often blamed for social problems – Depends on how a person interprets messages – Effects may not be immediately apparent continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Heredity Versus Environment • Health – Some diseases and illnesses interrupt normal development – Availability of health care is also a factor • Nutrition and physical activity – Can affect physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Reflection • Which do you think has influenced your development more, heredity or environment? © Archipoch/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Behaviorist Theories • Behaviorism: behavior determined by forces in the environment beyond individuals’ control • People’s thoughts, feelings, and actions depend on experience, rather than genetics or free will • Infants are “blank screens” Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning—behaviors are associated with responses – Pavlov rang bell when feeding dog – Eventually, when Pavlov rang the bell, the dog salivated even if no food was given • Classical conditioning may occur without training Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning • Operant conditioning—people repeat behaviors that have positive results • Reinforcement should be removed gradually in unpredictable patterns • Negative reinforcement (punishment) can reduce unwanted behaviors Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • People of all ages observe and imitate others’ behavior © Lobke Peers/Shutterstock. com continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivation • Each person’s response is based on personal reactions and the way the individual processes information Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory • Four stages of cognitive development • At each stage, individuals incorporate what they learn into skills developed in previous stages • Children base their thinking on what they learn through their senses continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Stage Sensorimotor Age Description Birth to 2 years Learn through senses Preoperational 2 to 7 years Communicate through language Concrete operational 7 to 11 years Think logically, solve problems Formal operational 11 years and older Think logically and abstractly, make predictions Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory • Learning is active and best when students learn in context, including – past experiences – knowledge – current reality • Bruner calls this theory constructivism continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory • Lack of readiness and ability to learn come from many sources • Bruner states teachers must be concerned with the context of learning, which includes – being cognizant of student challenges – removing barriers and finding appropriate ways to help students learn – presenting material in developmentally appropriate ways continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory • Teachers encourage students to discover new learning through active dialog, or Socratic learning – Teachers ask probing questions – Students answer questions with additional questions in discussion © Golden Pixels LLC/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • Children are social beings • Develop through interactions with parents, teachers, other students • Social interaction is critical to cognitive development Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory • Students learn best by doing, or through experiential learning, which can result in – gaining new skills – new ways of thinking • Experiential learning has four elements: – Concrete experience – Observation and reflection – Formation of hypothesis – Testing the hypothesis Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory • Eight stages • At each stage, people face and must successfully resolve a psychological or social conflict • Unsuccessful resolution affects future stages of development continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Stage/Age Infancy Toddler Early childhood Middle childhood Adolescence Young adulthood Middle adulthood Older adulthood Task Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus self-absorption Integrity versus despair Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Reflection • Which of Erikson’s stages have you already successfully completed? How do you know? © Archipoch/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Everyone follows the same progression • Not everyone attains the highest level © i. Qoncept/Shutterstock. com continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Preconventional morality—depends on whether behavior will be punished or rewarded • Conventional morality—motivated by society’s laws and rules • Postconventional morality—decisions based on principles and motivated by integrity continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Kohlberg believed children and teens should move to the next level of moral development instead of being taught about specific virtues • Kohlberg observed only men and boys, no females • Researchers such as Carol Gilligan believe women use ideas such as caring as a factor in making moral decisions Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Objective • Analyze how developmental theories impact teaching. © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Which Theory Is Correct? • Each theory is valid to some extent • Some theories may be more sound than others • Conflict between theories leads to more valid insights • Teachers can benefit from understanding several approaches and applying them in the classroom Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

For Discussion • Which theory discussed do you think would be most valuable to you as a teacher? Why? © Michael D. Brown/Shutterstock. com Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Key Points • Principles of development help in understanding how people change throughout life • Researchers form developmental theories based on their observations and experiments • Teachers use theories to help promote their students’ development Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Review • ____-____ skills depend on the development of small muscles. Ø Fine-motor • Name four basic principles of human development. Ø Development is relatively orderly; is a gradual, continual process; is interrelated; varies among individuals continued Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Review • Which behaviorist developed a theory of operant conditioning? Ø B. F. Skinner • What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive theory? Ø sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.

Review • Bruner’s theory that involves interacting with new knowledge by forming hypotheses, testing, and making decisions is called _____. Ø constructivism • What are the four elements of experiential learning? Ø concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of a hypothesis, and testing the hypothesis Copyright Goodheart-Willcox Co. , Inc. May not be posted to a publicly accessible website.