Chapter 6 Religious Specialists Introduction Religious specialists have

Chapter 6 Religious Specialists

Introduction �Religious specialists have special abilities to communicate with the spirit world �Can be full-time or part-time, focus on individual or the community �Less complex, developing communities Tend to be part-time (times of need) �More complex, technological communities Tend to be full-time

Forms of Religious Practices �We use Wallace’s 4 forms: Individualistic Shamanistic Communal Ecclesiastical

Individualistic �Individuals intentionally seek out spirits or supernatural powers to protect them �Direct interaction �Vision quest: Great Plains Indians; spirit comes in a vision; helps person on endeavors �No entire religion is individualistic

Shamanistic �Shaman or medicine man is a person with culturally defined special relationship to supernatural powers �May heal sick �May have spirit helpers �May take hallucinogens �May become mediums �Many Hunter/Gatherer and horticultural tribes

Shamanistic �Acquire status in 3 ways Period of special training as apprentice Endure difficult deprivations Experience unusual event �Ex: Jivaro of Ecuador Sickness is caused by enemies Bewitching shamans and curing shamans

Communal �Like shamanistic, these practices don’t have full-time specialists �Have leaders who manipulate symbolic objects �Two types: �Ancestral Rituals performed to worship kinship group’s ancestors �Totemistic Rituals focus on totem, or natural object. Clans are associated with different totems

Totemism Ancestor Worship

Ecclesiastical �State-sponsored practices are ecclesiatical practices �Highly organized �Held in large churches or temples �May have belief that ruler is “God-King” Aztecs ▪ Human sacrifice Egyptian Pharaoh ▪ pyramids Henry VIII

More Detail �Let’s talk more in depth about shamans and priests �Usually there are said to be two main types of religious specialists �However, these should be viewed as ends of a continuum Priests Shamans

Shamans �There a lot of different definitions �Features include: Direct communication with supernatural Use spirit helpers Use culturally appropriate paraphernalia

Becoming a Shaman �They are usually chosen by spirits �Can be called by dreams, trances, visions, or abnormal behavior �Also after surviving an illness or having certain illnesses Book: Lia’s seizures �Can decide whether or not to pursue it

Roles and Rituals �Contact and maintain relationship with spirits �Focus is on ability to contact (not on knowledge) �Use ASC �Fight or appease spirits, heal and cure disease �Can be private or public

Roles and Rituals �Use drumming, singing, chanting, dancing, costumes �Axis Mundi: view that there are three zones of the world Supernatural, and underworld �Shaman can travel through these �Also commonly linked to gender transitions

Gender Crossing and Multiple Gender Identities Western societies traditionally have two- gender model Deviance from this is “unnatural” and “sinful” Gender crossing is the adoption of social roles and behaviors normally appropriate for opposite sex In many cultures, gender crossing is institutionalized, or expected by at least some Gender crossing and sexual orientation are not the same thing!

Gender Crossing and Multiple Gender Identities Berdache is term for males who take on alternative gender Are seen as religious healers Anglo observers of crossed-genders overemphasized sexual orientation They were also judgmental and condemnatory

A Fifth Gender? Bugis in Indonesia have: Calalai: woman-man Calabai: man-woman Bissu: neither male nor female Bissu is also part deity and part mortal Role is the intermediary between supernatural world and the people Also bestow blessings on harvests, travels, and protect from natural disasters

Assignment �Read the “Berdache” article �Provide your own definition for a berdache �How is this tied to gender? �How do they end up a berdache?

Priests �These are full-time specialists in formal religious institutions �Usually in complex, industrialized societies �Seen as representative of community Supposed to be moral authority How does society react when they act inappropriately?

Priests �Perform prescribed rituals Periodic (calendrical) And in times of need Rites of passage (weddings, funerals, baptism, bris) �Also generalized Reinforce community beliefs and behaviors

Priests �Focus is on knowledge and memorization (not on contacting spirits) �High degree of specialization �Usually formally trained �Rite of Passage (ordained)

Hierarchy �Priests can have strict hierarchy �Example: Deacons assist priests Priests lead churches Bishops lead regions In Roman Catholicism, can go to cardinals, pope…

Priests �How do priests and shamans differ?

What’s the Difference? PRIEST Hierarchy of priesthood Under formal government (state) Special training High in social ladder; may live better than others Calendrical People have spiritual dependence on priest SHAMAN Work alone No formal government (band, tribe, chiefdom) May not have special training Equal status as others Crisis No spiritual dependence

Other Specialists �These fall in the spectrum and may overlap with priests or shamans �Herbalists �Diviners

Herbalists �Use plants for curing �Many plants do have medicinal properties

Diviners �Practices a set of techniques that obtains unknowable information �Usually of the future or things dealing with the supernatural �Often use ASC �Answer practical questions �Diviner gives diagnosis and healer gives cure

Prophets �Are the mouthpiece for gods �They communicate the gods/gods’ words to the people �Can also be shamans �Roles include: Healing Predicting future Control nature

Prophets �Judaism: Moses �Christianity: Jesus (may also be considered deity) �Islam: Mohammed

Assignment �Read Box 6. 2 (African Healers Meet Western Medicine) �Discuss in groups how this applies to the book